Effect of Energy Expenditure and Training Status on Leptin Response to Sub-Maximal Cycling

We examined the leptin response and related hormones during and after two sub-maximal exercise protocols in trained and untrained subjects. During this study, plasma concentrations of leptin [Lep], insulin [I], cortisol [C], growth hormone [GH], glucose [G] and lactate [La] were measured. 7 elite volleyball trained players (TR) and 7 untrained (UTR) subjects (percent body fat: 13.2 ± 1.8 versus 15.7 ± 1.0, p < 0.01, respectively) were examined after short and prolonged sub-maximal cycling exercise protocols (SP and PP). Venous blood samples were collected before each protocol, during, at the end, and after 2 and 24 h of recovery. SP and PP energy expenditures ranged from 470 ± 60 to 740 ± 90 kcal for TR and from 450 ± 60 to 710 ± 90 kcal for UTR, respectively. [Lep] was related to body fat percentage and body fat mass in TR (r = 0. 84, p < 0.05 and r = 0.93, p < 0.01) and in UTR (r = 0.89, p < 0.01 and r = 0.92, p < 0. 01, respectively). [Lep] did not change significantly during both protocols for both groups but was lower (p < 0.05) in all sampling in TR when compared to UTR. Plasma [I] decreased (p < 0.01) and [GH] increased (p < 0.01) significantly during both SP and PP and these hormones remained lower (I: p < 0.01) and higher (GH: p < 0.01) than pre-exercise levels after a 2-h recovery period, returning to base-line at 24-h recovery. Plasma [La] increased (p < 0.01) during both protocols for TR and UTR. There was no significant change in [C] and [G] during and after both protocols for all subjects. It is concluded that 1) leptin is not sensitive to acute short or prolonged sub-maximal exercises (with energy expenditure under 800 kcal) in volleyball/ anaerobically trained athletes as in untrained subjects, 2) volleyball athletes showed significantly lower resting and exercise leptin response with respect to untrained subjects and 3) it appears that in these anaerobically trained athletes leptin response to exercise is more sensitive to the level of energy expenditure than hormonal or metabolic modifications induced by acute exercise.

Key points

• Trials concerning acute exercise and leptin indicated discrepant results.
• Acute exercise with energy expenditure higher than 800 kcal can decrease leptinemia.
• Elite volleyball players presented decreased leptin levels than untrained subjects.

Key words: Hormones, anaerobic training, acute exercise, body fat.     

The Effects of Exercise on Food Intake and Hunger: Relationship with Acylated Ghrelin and Leptin

This study investigated the effects of a long bout of aerobic exercise on hunger and energy intake and circulating levels of leptin and acylated ghrelin. Ten healthy male subjects undertook two, 4 h trials in a randomized crossover design. In the exercise trial subjects ran for 105 min at 50% of maximal oxygen uptake and the last 15 min at 70% of maximal oxygen uptake followed by a 120 min rest period. In the control trial, subjects rested for 4 h. Subjects consumed a buffet test meal at 180 min during each trial. Hunger ratings, acylated ghrelin, leptin, glucose and insulin concentrations were measured at 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 h. No differences were found at baseline values for hunger, acylated ghrelin, leptin, insulin and glucose for both trials (p > 0.05). The estimated energy expenditure of the exercise trial was 1550 ± 136 kcal. Exercise did not change subsequent absolute energy intake, but produced a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in relative energy intake. A two-way ANOVA revealed a significant (p < 0. 05) interaction effect for hunger and acylated ghrelin. In conclusion, this exercise regimen had a positive effect on reducing appetite which is related to reduced acylated ghrelin responses over time. This finding lends support for a role of exercise in weight management.

Key points

• Physical exercise is a strategy used to counteract obesity, since it lowers the energetic balance by increasing energy expenditure. However, because any energy expended in exercise elevates the intensity of hunger and drives food consumption, it is pertinent to ask how effective exercise could be in helping people to lose weight or to prevent weight gain.
• The effects of exercise on hunger sensations and food intake are fairly controversial and depend on the intensity and duration of exercise.
• 120 min prolonged treadmill exercise with mix intensity, temporarily decreased hunger sensations, acylated ghrelin and relative energy intake.
• Variations in exercise intensity should theoretically be a useful means of weight loss.

Key words: Energy intake, energy expenditure, exercise, hunger, acylated ghrelin, weight loss, appetite     

Self-Reported Dietary Intake Following Endurance,Resistance and Concurrent Endurance and Resistance Training

With regards to obesity-related disease the impact of exercise training on health depends on the ability of exercise to promote a negative energy balance. Exercise''s effect on promoting a negative energy balance is more likely to occur if exercise can induce a favourable dietary intake such as a reduced relative fat content in the diet. As such, the aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of aerobic training, weight training and concurrent aerobic and weight training on self-reported dietary intake. The effects of 16 weeks of aerobic (n = 12), weight (n = 13) and concurrent aerobic and weight training (n = 13) on self-reported dietary intakes were compared in previously sedentary males using the computer-based Dietary Manager^® software programme. Only the concurrent aerobic and weight training group showed significant (p ≤ 0.05) reductions in total kilocalories, carbohydrates, proteins and fats consumed while the aerobic training group showed significant reductions in fat intake at the completion of the experimental period (before: 91.0 ± 42.1g versus after: 77.1 ± 62.1g). However, no changes were observed in self-reported dietary intake in the weight training or non-exercising control groups. It is concluded that concurrent aerobic and weight training is the most effective mode of exercise at promoting a favourable improvement in self-reported dietary intake in the short term. This finding provides support for efforts to promote increases in overall physical activity in an attempt to modify the patterns of dietary intake.

Key points

• Concurrent aerobic and weight training can significantly reduce the amount of total kilocalories, carbohydrates, proteins and fats consumed.
• Aerobic training can significantly reduce fat intake.
• Weight training resulted in no changes in dietary intake.
• Concurrent aerobic and weight training is the most effective mode of exercise at promoting a favourable improvement in self-reported dietary intake.

Key words: Kilocalories, carbohydrate, diet, exercise, fat, protein     

Effects of exercise and caffeic acid phenethyl ester after chronic exercise rat model

In order to understand whether exercise and caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) has an effect on obesity and weight control, we investigated the effects of CAPE, and exercise on lipid parameters (triglyceride, total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C), and adipokine substances such as leptin and resistin in rats. 40 male rat were randomly assigned into 4 groups. It was determined that CAPE does not have any significant effect on these parameters but that lipid parameters and leptin values in exercise groups decreased considerably, while no significant change occurred in resistin levels. In order to understand whether diet has an effect on exercise, body weights of all animal groups in pre and post-exercise were compared. A significant weight gain was observed (p = 0.005) in all groups. This study concluded that exercise has a considerable effect on leptin and lipid parameters; however, exercise alone was not sufficient for weight control and could be effective in weight control only when accompanied by a restricted diet.

Key points

• Caffeic acid phenethyl ester is not effective on weight control, lipid parameters, and adipokine substances such as leptin and resistin.
• Exercise can be effective in weight control only when accompanied by a restricted diet.

Key words: Caffeic acid phenethyl ester, exercise, leptin, resistin, weight control     

Regular Exercise Participation Mediates the Affective Response to Acute Bouts of Vigorous Exercise

Physical inactivity is a leading factor associated with cardiovascular disease and a major contributor to the global burden of disease in developed countries. Subjective mood states associated with acute exercise are likely to influence future exercise adherence and warrant further investigation. The present study examined the effects of a single bout of vigorous exercise on mood and anxiety between individuals with substantially different exercise participation histories. Mood and anxiety were assessed one day before an exercise test (baseline), 5 minutes before (pre-test) and again 10 and 25 minutes post-exercise. Participants were 31 university students (16 males, 15 females; Age M = 20), with 16 participants reporting a history of regular exercise with the remaining 15 reporting to not exercise regularly. Each participant completed an incremental exercise test on a Monark cycle ergometer to volitional exhaustion. Regular exercisers reported significant post-exercise improvements in mood and reductions in state anxiety. By contrast, non-regular exercisers reported an initial decline in post-exercise mood and increased anxiety, followed by an improvement in mood and reduction in anxiety back to pre-exercise levels. Our findings suggest that previous exercise participation mediates affective responses to acute bouts of vigorous exercise. We suggest that to maximise positive mood changes following exercise, practitioners should carefully consider the individual''s exercise participation history before prescribing new regimes.

Key points

• Previous exercise participation mediates the affective response to acute bouts of vigorous exercise.
• Regular exercisers respond positively to acute bouts of vigorous physical activity, reporting less state anxiety and fatigue, and more vigour.
• Non-regular exercisers respond with an initial reduction in positive mood states, followed by a rebound to baseline levels 25 minutes post-exercise.
• To maximise positive post-exercise mood states, especially among novice exercisers, practitioners should carefully consider previous exercise participation when prescribing new exercise regimes.

Key words: Exercise, mood, affect, anxiety, exercise adherence     

Different Circulating Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Responses to Acute Exercise Between Physically Active and Sedentary Subjects

Although circulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) level is affected by both acute and chronic physical activity, the interaction of acute and chronic physical activity was still unclear. In this study, we compared the serum and plasma BDNF responses to maximal and submaximal acute exercises between physically active and sedentary subjects. Eight active and 8 sedentary female subjects participated in the present study. Both groups performed 3 exercise tests with different intensities, i.e. 100% (maximal), 60% (moderate) and 40% (low) of their peak oxygen uptake. In each exercise test, blood samples were taken at the baseline and immediately, 30 and 60 min after the test. The serum BDNF concentration was found to significantly increase immediately after maximal and moderate exercise tests in both groups. In maximal exercise test, the pattern of change in the serum BDNF concentration was different between the groups. While the serum BDNF level for the sedentary group returned to the baseline level during the recovery phase, the BDNF levels for the active group decreased below the baseline level after the maximal exercise test. No group differences were observed in the pattern of plasma BDNF change for all exercise tests. These findings suggest that regular exercise facilitates the utilization of circulating BDNF during and/or after acute exercise with maximal intensity.

Key points

• In maximal exercise test, the pattern of change in the serum BDNF concentration was different between the groups.
• While the serum BDNF level for the sedentary group returned to the baseline level during the recovery phase, the BDNF levels for the active group decreased below the baseline level after the maximal exercise test.
• No group differences were observed in the pattern of serum BDNF change for moderate or low exercise tests.
• No group differences were observed in the pattern of plasma BDNF change for all exercise tests.

Key words: Serum BDNF, plasma BDNF, acute exercise     

The Effect of Chinese Yuanji-Dance on Dynamic Balance and the Associated Attentional Demands in Elderly Adults

Walking performance changes with age. This has implications for the problem of falls in older adults. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Yuanji-Dance practice on walking balance and the associated attention demand in healthy elderly. Fifteen community-dwelling elderly (comparison group, no regular exercise habit) and fifteen Yuanji- Dance elderly (exercise group, dancing experience: 5.40 ± 1.95 years), aged 60-70 years, were included in this study. The subjects in exercise group participated in a 90-minute Yuanji-Dance practice at least three times per week and the comparison group continued their normal daily physical activity. Walking balance measures (including walking velocity, step length, step width, and percentage of time spent in double limb support, COM velocity and COM-COP inclination angles) and attentional demand tests (button reaction time and accuracy) were conducted under different conditions. Our results showed that stride lengths, walking velocities, peak A/P velocities (AP V) of the COM, medial COM-COP inclination (M angle) angles, reaction time, and accuracy decrease significantly as the dual-task (walking plus hand button pressing tasks) applied for either the comparison or exercise groups. These results demonstrated that walking performance is attenuated in our elderly participants as the cognitive tasks applied. Analysis also identified a significantly faster RT for our exercise group both in standing and walking conditions. This may indicate that physical exercise (Yuanji-Dance) may have facilitating effects on general cognitive and perceptual- motor functions. This implies that Chinese Yuanji-Dance practice for elderly adults may improve their personal safety when walking especially under the condition of multiple task demand.

Key points

• The purpose of this study was to investigate the training effects of a Chinese traditional exercise, Yuanji-Dance, on walking balance and the associated attention demand in the healthy elderly.
• Walking performance is attenuated in elderly participants as the cognitive tasks applied.
• A significantly faster reaction time for our exercise group both in standing and walking conditions.
• Yuanji-Dance exercise training can improve the information processing speed of elderly people and has no influence of the dynamic walking balance.

Key words: Yuanji-Dance, exercise, balance, attention     

Exercise Testing and Training with the Young Cystic Fibrosis Patient

The purpose of the article is to review the literature related to exercise and Cystic fibrosis (CF), with particular focus on the young CF patient. Exercise intolerance is a characteristic of CF, however, recent studies in adults have advanced our understanding of how exercise can be used effectively as a prognostic marker and for rehabilitation purposes. New analyses from exercise testing have shown to have prognostic value, and different methods of exercise training have been reported to improve the functional capacity and quality of life of the young CF patient. There is a growing awareness and belief among clinicians of the benefits of exercise testing and training, however, recent work suggests that exercise is being underused in the healthcare management of the CF patient. More research is needed to identity which exercise tests and training programmes would be most feasible to incorporate into CF centres routine clinical procedures.

Key points

• New methods of health assessment from exercise testing in the young CF patient have shown to have prognostic value.
• The introduction of new training methods into exercise programmes can improve the functional capacity and quality of life of young patients with CF.
• Exercise is still being underused in the healthcare management of the CF patient.

Key words: Cystic fibrosis, young patients, exercise testing, training programmes, physical activity     

Effects of Ballates,Step Aerobics,and Walking on Balance in Women Aged 50–75 Years

This study examined the effectiveness of Ballates training (strengthening of the central core musculature by the inception of balance techniques) compared to more traditional exercise programs, such as step aerobics and walking, on balance in women aged 50- 75 years. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three supervised training groups (1 hour/day, 3 days/week, 13 weeks), Ballates (n = 12), step aerobics (n = 17), or walking (n =15). Balance was measured by four different methods (modified Clinical Test for the Sensory Interaction on Balance - mCTSIB; Unilateral Stance with Eyes Open - US-EO or Eyes Closed - US-EC; Tandem Walk - TW; Step Quick Turn - SQT) using the NeuroCom Balance Master. A 2-way (Group and Trial) repeated measures ANOVA and post-hoc Bonferroni Pair-wise Comparisons were used to evaluate changes in the dependent variables used to describe stability and balance (sway velocity, turn sway, speed, and turn time). Measures of static postural stability and dynamic balance were similar for the three groups prior to training. Following the different exercise interventions, sway velocity on firm and foam surfaces (mCTSIB) with eyes closed (p < 0.05) increased for the Ballates group while the other two exercise groups either maintained or decreased their sway velocity following the training, therefore suggesting that these two groups either maintained or improved their balance. There were significant improvements in speed during the TW test (p < 0.01), and turn time (p < 0.01) and sway (p < 0.05) during the SQT test for each of the three groups. In general, all three training programs improved dynamic balance, however, step aerobics and walking programs resulted in be better improvements in postural stability or static balance when compared to the Ballates program.

Key Points

• Exercise training can improve balance
• Need to consider both static and dynamic aspects of balance individually
• Improved balance can reduce the risk of fall

Key words: Exercise intervention, static balance, dynamic balance, aging     

The Effect of Acute Vibration Exercise on Short-Distance Sprinting and Reactive Agility

Vibration exercise (VbX) has been a popular modality to enhancing physical performance, where various training methods and techniques have been employed to improve immediate and long-term sprint performance. However, the use of acute side-alternating VbX on sprint and agility performance remains unclear. Eight female athletes preformed side-alternating vibration exercise (VbX) and control (no VbX) in a cross over randomised design that was conducted one week apart. After performing a warm-up, the athletes undertook maximal 5m sprints and maximal reactive agility sprints (RAT), this was followed by side-alternating VbX (26 Hz, 6mm) or control (no VbX). Immediately following the intervention, post-sprint tests and RAT were performed. There was a significant treatment effect but there was no time effect (pre vs. post) or interaction effect for sprint and RAT; however, side-alternating VbX did not compromise sprint and agility performance.

Key Points

• Acute VbX could be beneficial for the acceleration phase (1.5m) of a short-distance sprint.
• Acute VbX does not have positive influence on short-distance (3m & 5m) sprint performance.
• Acute VbX does not enhance reactive agility performance.

Key words: Explosive power, speed, postactivation potentiation, warm-up     

Effect of a Pre-Workout Energy Supplement on Acute Multi-Joint Resistance Exercise

The effect of a pre-workout energy supplement on acute multi- joint resistance exercise was examined in eight resistance-trained college-age men. Subjects were randomly provided either a placebo (P) or a supplement (S: containing caffeine, taurine, glucuronolactone, creatine, β-alanine, and the amino acids; leucine, isoleucine, valine, glutamine and arginine) 10 minutes prior to resistance exercise. Subjects performed 4 sets of no more than 10 repetitions of either barbell squat or bench press at 80% of their pre-determined 1 repetition- maximum (1RM) with 90 seconds of rest between sets. Dietary intake 24 hours prior to each of the two training trials was kept constant. Results indicate that consuming the pre-workout energy drink 10 minutes prior to resistance exercise enhances performance by significantly increasing the number of repetitions successfully performed (p = 0.022) in S (26.3 ± 9.2) compared to P (23.5 ± 9.4). In addition, the average peak and mean power performance for all four sets was significantly greater in S compared to P (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively). No differences were observed between trials in subjective feelings of energy during either pre (p = 0.660) or post (p = 0.179) meaures. Similary, no differences between groups, in either pre or post assessments, were observed in subjective feelings of focus (p = 0.465 and p = 0.063, respectively), or fatigue (p = 0.204 and p = 0.518, respectively). Results suggest that acute ingestion of a high-energy supplement 10 minutes prior to the onset of a multi-joint resistance training session can augment training volume and increase power performance during the workout.

Key points

• Consumption of a pre-workout energy supplement containing caffeine, taurine, glucuronolactone, creatine, β-alanine, and amino acids consumed 10 minutes prior to a bout of resistance exercise enhances the total number of repetitions performed during the exercise bout.
• Power outputs for each repetition during the workout were significantly greater when using the supplement compared to placebo.
• Ingestion of supplement did not have any significant effect on subjective measures of fatigue, energy and focus.

Key words: Ergogenic aid, resistance exercise, caffeine, nutritional supplement     

The Impact of Short Term Supervised and Home-Based Walking Programmes on Heart Rate Variability in Patients with Peripheral Arterial Disease

The aims of the study were to determine whether heart rate variability (HRV) measured at rest and during exercise could be altered by an exercise training programme designed to increase walking performance in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Forty-four volunteers were randomised into 12 weeks of either: supervised walking training twice weekly for 30 min at 75% VO_2peak (SU), home-based walking training sessions: twice weekly, 30 min per week (HB) or no exercise (CT). HRV measures were calculated from a 5-min resting ECG. Each patient then underwent maximal, graded exercise treadmill testing. All measures were repeated after 12 weeks. The SU group showed significantly (p < 0.001) increased maximal walking time (MWT) but no change in VO_2peak. There were no statistically significant changes in any of the measures of HRV in any group. Effect sizes for change in HRV measures were all very small and in some cases negative. Improved walking performance was not accompanied by central cardiorespiratory or neuroregulatory adaptations in the present study. The lack of any change in HRV was possibly due to either the low intensity or discontinuous nature of exercise undertaken.

Key points

• It is known that exercise can positively influence heart rate variability in some cardiac patients.
• It is known that exercise can increase walking performance in peripheral vascular disease patients.
• Exercise training improved walking performance in peripheral vascular disease patients but HRV was unaltered.
• This may be due to low overall physiological demands on the cardiovascular system or the intermittent nature of the exercise.

Key words: Exercise, ischemia, autonomic nervous system     

Hormone Replacement and Strength Training Positively Influence Balance During Gait in Post-Menopausal Females: A Pilot Study

This study examined the effects of hormone replacement combined with strength training on improving dynamic balance control in post-menopausal women. Thirty one participating post-menopausal women were divided into three groups (hormone replacement (HR), non-hormone replacement (NR) and control (CR) group). HR and NR groups were tested for muscle strength and balance control during gait, prior to training and following a six week lower body strength training program. Quadriceps muscle strength was evaluated as isokinetic peak torque (60°·sec^-1) using a CYBEX NORM and balance control was evaluated by center of mass - base of support relationships and ground reaction forces during gait perturbations. Only the HR group showed significantly (p < 0.05) improved balance control during the initial phase of unexpected gait termination and single stance periods while walking across uneven terrain following training. The strength gains in the HR group tended to be greater than in the NR group over the six week training program, although neither group showed statistically significant increases. The CR group showed no significant differences between testing times. HR in post-menopausal females may enhance dynamic balance control when combined with a strength training program, even if no statistically significant gains in strength are achieved.

Key Points

• This study provides evidence that even a short modest strength training program can enhance dynamic balance control in older adult females taking hormone replacement.
• If potential benefits of hormone replacement therapy extend to enhancing muscle strength then this would be important in designing optimal interventions for both strength and balance for this cohort.
• Future work should explore the influence of hormone replacement therapy on other dynamic balance or functional tasks.

Key words: Estrogen replacement, gait, balance, strength     

Angiotensin I Converting Enzyme Gene Polymorphism and Exercise Trainability in Elderly Women: An Electrocardiological Approach

Angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) gene Insertion / Deletion (I/D) polymorphism is associated with exercise trainability and exercise induced left ventricular hypertrophy. However, it is unclear whether this polymorphism influences exercise trainability in the elderly, and the electrocardiological alterations by exercise training is unknown among the genotypes. We herein investigated the association between ACE gene insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism, exercise trainability and the electrocardiological alternations by exercise in elderly women. Eighty four elderly women participated in this study. In all subjects the leg extension power (LEP) and lactate threshold (LT) were determined in order to evaluate the muscle strength, aerobic capacity and to also select the appropriate training intensity for each individual. They performed bench step exercise training for 12 weeks. A resting electrocardiogram was recorded for the obtained QTc interval in before and after the program. The baseline of aerobic capacity was higher in I/I than that in I/D, and the QTc interval was shorter in I/I than that in I/D. All other characteristics were similar among the genotypes. The QTc interval tended to be shorten only in the D/D. Furthermore, the value of the QTc interval change showed a significant difference between the I/I and D/D genotype after the program. The LT and LEP demonstrated a similar response among the genotypes. The D allele of ACE gene I/D polymorphism may therefore play a role in the electrocardiological aspect during exercise training, however, it was not found to influence the aerobic capacity.

Key points

• The D allele of ACE gene I/D polymorphism may play a role in the electrocardiological aspects during exercise training
• ACE gene I/D polymorphism was not determined the aerobic capacity and leg strength in elderly people.
• The ACE gene I/D polymorphism did not influence aerobic and strength trainability in elderly people.

Key Words: Electrophysiology, exercise, genes     

Effects of Vibration Training and Detraining on Balance and Muscle Strength in Older Adults

The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of 2 days/week versus 4 days/week of Whole Body Vibration (WBV) during eight weeks of WBV training on health-related quality of life (SF-36), balance and lower body strength, as well as short-term detraining (3 weeks) on balance and lower body strength among older adults. Thirty-four older adults were randomly assigned to a control group (Control; n = 11) or to one of the vibration training groups: WBV 2 days/week (WBV_2d; n = 11) or WBV 4 days/week (WBV_4d; n = 12). The WBV groups exercised for 8 weeks, following 3 weeks of detraining. Lower body strength increased significantly (p < 0.05) for both groups, WBV_2d and WBV_4d, after 8-week training. A significant reduction in strength was observed following 3 weeks of detraining only in WBV_2d group (p < 0.05). All variables of the SF-36 and the balance test did not change after intervention in any group. 2 days/week and 4 days/week of WBV during 8 weeks showed the same improvements on muscle strength. 3 weeks of detraining did not reverse the gains in strength made during 32 sessions of WBV.

Key points

• 2 days and 4 days per week of WBV training during 8 weeks showed the same improvements on muscle strength.
• 3 weeks of detraining did not reverse the gains in strength made during 32 sessions of WBV exercise.
• 3 weeks of detraining did reverse the gains in strength made during 16 sessions of WBV exercise.

Key words: Whole-body vibrations, posturography, dose-response, equilibrium     

Daily Running Promotes Spatial Learning and Memory in Rats

Previous studies have shown that physical activity improves learning and memory. Present study was performed to determine the effects of acute, chronic and continuous exercise with different periods on spatial learning and memory recorded as the latency and length of swim path in the Morris water maze testing in subsequent 8 days. Four rat groups were included as follows: 1- Group C (controls which did not exercise). 2- Group A (30 days treadmill running before and 8 days during the Morris water maze testing period). 3- Group B (30 days exercise before the Morris water maze testing period only) and 4- Group D (8 days exercise only during the Morris water maze testing period). The results showed that chronic (30 days) and continuous (during 8 days of Morris water maze testing days) treadmill training produced a significant enhancement in spatial learning and memory which was indicated by decreases in path length and latency to reach the platform in the Morris water maze test (p < 0.05). The benefits in these tests were lost in three days, if the daily running session was abandoned. In group D with acute treadmill running (8 days exercise only) the difference between the Group A disappeared in one week and benefit seemed to be obtained in comparison with the controls without running program. In conclusion the chronic and daily running exercises promoted learning and memory in Morris water maze, but the benefits were lost in few days without daily running sessions in adult rats.

Key points

• Daily running influence on spatial memory.
• The velocity of learning can be influenced by running activity.
• Path length is important parameter for measuring the speed of learning.

Key words: Exercise, spatial memory, hippocampus, Morris water maze     

Effects of Acute Moderate and Strenuous Exercise Bouts on IL-17 Production and Inflammatory Response in Trained Rats

In this study, we aimed to compare the effects of a single bout of acute moderate and strenuous running exercise on the production of interleukin-17 (IL-17), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) and inflammatory response of skeletal muscles in regularly trained rats. Eight week old rats were trained by treadmill running 5 days per week for 13 weeks at the durations of 30 min (moderate) and 60 min (strenuous). Two days after the last training session, the animals were subjected to a single bout of moderate or strenuous exercise and serum samples were analyzed for IL-17, IL-6, IL-1ra levels and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity of gastrocnemius muscle were determined. IL-17 level significantly increased in strenuous exercise group when compared to that of sedentary controls (p < 0.01), On the other hand, only in the moderate exercise group, there was a negative correlation between IL-6 and IL-17 levels (r = - 0.857 and p = 0.014). In conclusion, acute single bout of strenuous exercise increased IL-17 production in trained rats and, this cytokine may be involved in inflammatory process of skeletal muscles.

Key points

• A single bout of acute strenuous running exercise markedly elevated IL-17 production.
• This preliminary result should be supported by forthcoming studies that investigate the role of IL-17 in acute inflammatory process of skeletal muscle.

Key words: Interleukin-17, cytokines, running, exercise, rat.     

Effects of Nordic Walking Compared to Conventional Walking and Band-Based Resistance Exercise on Fitness in Older Adults

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of Nordic walking with conventional walking and band-based resistance exercise on functional fitness, static balance and dynamic balance in older adults. Volunteers (n = 65) were divided into four groups: Nordic walking (NW), conventional walking (CW), resistance (RES), and control. Each group performed activity 50-70 min·day⁻¹ (warm-up 10-15 min, main exercise 30-40, and cool down 10-15 min), 3 days·week⁻¹ (NW and CW) or 2 day·week⁻¹ (RES) for 12 wks. Upper-body strength improved (p < 0. 05) in the RES (22.3%) and the NW (11.6%) groups compared to the CW and control groups. Cardio- respiratory fitness improved more in the NW (10.9%) and CW (10.6%) groups compared to the RES and control groups. Upper- and lower-body flexibility also improved in all exercise groups compared to the control group. There were no improvements in balance measures in any group. While all modes of exercise improved various components of fitness, Nordic walking provided the best well-rounded benefits by improving upper-body strength, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility. Therefore, Nordic walking is recommended as an effective and efficient mode of concurrent exercise to improve overall functional fitness in older adults.

Key Points

• Nordic walking, conventional walking, and resistance training are beneficial for older adults.
• Nordic walking and conventional walking both improve cardio-respiratory fitness while resistance training does not.
• Nordic walking provides additional benefits in upper-body muscular strength compared to conventional walking.
• Nordic walking is an effective and efficient mode of exercise to improve overall fitness in older adults.

Key words: Walking, resistance exercise, concurrent exercise, aging, functional fitness     

Integrating Pilates Exercise into an Exercise Program for 65+ Year-Old Women to Reduce Falls

The purpose of this study was to determine if Pilates exercise could improve dynamic balance, flexibility, reaction time and muscle strength in order to reduce the number of falls among older women. 60 female volunteers over the age of 65 from a residential home in Ankara participated in this study. Participants joined a 12-week series of 1-hour Pilates sessions three times per week. Dynamic balance, flexibility, reaction time and muscle strength were measured before and after the program. The number of falls before and during the 12-week period was also recorded. Dynamic balance, flexibility, reaction time and muscle strength improved (p < 0. 05) in the exercise group when compared to the non-exercise group. In conclusion, Pilates exercises are effective in improving dynamic balance, flexibility, reaction time, and muscle strength as well as decreasing the propensity to fall in older women.

Key points

• Pilates-based exercises improve dynamic balance, reaction time and muscle strength in the elderly.
• Pilates exercise may reduce the number of falls in elderly women by increasing these fitness parameters.

Key words: Pilates, elderly women, balance, reaction time, muscle strength