Increase of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells after spinal cord injury

The reaction of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) after spinal cord injury (SCI) is poorly understood. In this study, we examined oligodendroglial reactions after contusion SCI in adult rats by immunohistochemistry. OPCs were identified by staining with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) A2B5 and O4. Each of the A2B5-, O4-positive OPCs and galactocerebroside-positive oligodendrocytes dramatically increased in the lesion of the dorsal posterior funiculus. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation studies showed that most O4-positive cells in the lesion were labeled with BrdU, suggesting that these OPCs were proliferative. In contrast, the expression of myelin basic protein was decreased in the lesion compared with controls that received laminectomy only. From the injured cord, OPCs were isolated by immunopanning with mAb A2B5. We observed an increased number of OPCs from the injured spinal cords compared with those isolated from controls and unoperated animals. After several days in culture, the OPCs from the lesion expressed galactocerebroside. These results suggest that OPCs are induced and can differentiate following SCI in the adult rat.     

Human umbilical cord blood stem cells upregulate matrix metalloproteinase-2 in rats after spinal cord injury

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a large family of proteolytic enzymes involved in inflammation, wound healing and other pathological processes after neurological disorders. MMP-2 promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI) by regulating the formation of a glial scar. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the expression and/or activity of several MMPs, after SCI and human umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stem cell (hUCB) treatment in rats with a special emphasis on MMP-2. Treatment with hUCB after SCI altered the expression of several MMPs in rats. MMP-2 is upregulated after hUCB treatment in spinal cord injured rats and in spinal neurons injured either with staurosporine or hydrogen peroxide. Further, hUCB induced upregulation of MMP-2 reduced formation of the glial scar at the site of injury along with reduced immunoreactivity to chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. Blockade of MMP-2 activity in hUCB cocultured injured spinal neurons reduced the protection offered by hUCB which indicated the involvement of MMP-2 in the neuroprotection offered by hUCB. Based on these results, we conclude that hUCB treatment after SCI upregulates MMP-2 levels and reduces the formation of the glial scar thereby creating an environment suitable for endogenous repair mechanisms.     

The fate and function of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells after traumatic spinal cord injury

Oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) are the most proliferative and dispersed population of progenitor cells in the adult central nervous system, which allows these cells to rapidly respond to damage. Oligodendrocytes and myelin are lost after traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI), compromising efficient conduction and, potentially, the long-term health of axons. In response, OPCs proliferate and then differentiate into new oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells to remyelinate axons. This culminates in highly efficient remyelination following experimental SCI in which nearly all intact demyelinated axons are remyelinated in rodent models. However, myelin regeneration comprises only one role of OPCs following SCI. OPCs contribute to scar formation after SCI and restrict the regeneration of injured axons. Moreover, OPCs alter their gene expression following demyelination, express cytokines and perpetuate the immune response. Here, we review the functional contribution of myelin regeneration and other recently uncovered roles of OPCs and their progeny to repair following SCI.     

室管膜细胞在大鼠脊髓损伤后的反应性增生

目的旨在探讨成年大鼠脊髓损伤后室管膜细胞的增殖反应,为进一步促进脊髓损伤后自身修复提供理论依据。方法应用动脉瘤夹压迫建立大鼠脊髓压迫损伤模型,通过组织病理学及免疫组织化学方法检测不同时段室管膜细胞的反应性增生和神经外胚层多潜能细胞特异性抗原巢蛋白(nestin)的表达。结果常规病理学检查显示损伤模型类似于临床常见的脊髓横贯伤,损伤后24h可以观察到室管膜细胞nestin表达明显升高,增殖细胞核抗原(PCNA)呈阳性;1周后见室管膜细胞显著增生;nestin的表达随时间进展呈向下调节。结论静止的室管膜细胞有潜在的增殖能力,在脊髓损伤后表现出明显的分裂增生,可能在结构和功能重塑过程中起作用。     

ErbB receptor signaling directly controls oligodendrocyte progenitor cell transformation and spontaneous remyelination after spinal cord injury

We recently discovered a novel role for neuregulin-1 (Nrg1) signaling in mediating spontaneous regenerative processes and functional repair after spinal cord injury (SCI). We revealed that Nrg1 is the molecular signal responsible for spontaneous functional remyelination of dorsal column axons by peripheral nervous system (PNS)-like Schwann cells after SCI. Here, we investigate whether Nrg1/ErbB signaling controls the unusual transformation of centrally derived progenitor cells into these functional myelinating Schwann cells after SCI using a fate-mapping/lineage tracing approach. Specific ablation of Nrg1-ErbB receptors in central platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα)-derived lineage cells (using PDGFRαCreERT2/Tomato-red reporter mice crossed with ErbB3fl/fl/ErbB4fl/fl mice) led to a dramatic reduction in P0-positive remyelination in the dorsal columns following spinal contusion injury. Central myelination, assessed by Olig2 and proteolipid protein expression, was unchanged. Loss of ErbB signaling in PDGFRα lineage cells also significantly impacted the degree of spontaneous locomotor recovery after SCI, particularly in tests dependent on proprioception. These data have important implications, namely (a) cells from the PDGFRα-expressing progenitor lineage (which are presumably oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, OPCs) can differentiate into remyelinating PNS-like Schwann cells after traumatic SCI, (b) this process is controlled by ErbB tyrosine kinase signaling, and (c) this endogenous repair mechanism has significant consequences for functional recovery after SCI. Thus, ErbB tyrosine kinase receptor signaling directly controls the transformation of OPCs from the PDGFRα-expressing lineage into PNS-like functional remyelinating Schwann cells after SCI.     

嗅鞘细胞移植脊髓损伤大鼠NG2的表达

背景：对于脊髓损伤,目前临床尚无有效的治疗对策,近年来嗅鞘细胞移植治疗脊髓损伤修复取得了一定的进展。NG2是主要的硫酸软骨素蛋白多糖分子,对轴突有抑制作用。 目的：观察嗅鞘细胞移植对脊髓损伤大鼠NG2表达的影响,进一步分析嗅鞘细胞移植在修复脊髓损伤中的作用途径。 方法：将112只大鼠随机分为4组,空白组、模型组、嗅鞘细胞移植组及DF12组各28只。空白组仅切开T10全椎板及T9,T11部分椎板,对脊髓未作其他处理;其他3组应用脊髓横切法制作脊髓损伤动物模型。嗅鞘细胞移植组进行嗅鞘细胞移植,每侧断端植入20 000 cells;DF12组于相同部位注射DF12培养液。在大鼠脊髓损伤后1,3,7,14,28,42和56 d时,取材按照SP试剂盒的操作步骤检测NG2的表达。 结果与结论：空白组NG2呈低表达,在模型组、DF12组脊髓损伤24 h后损伤部位的NG2的表达开始升高,7 d时达到顶点,4周时NG2表达明显降低,6,8周时仅在局部有所表达。嗅鞘细胞移植组脊髓损伤1 d时NG2表达开始增加,主要在损伤部位,在各时间点与模型组、DF12组相比NG2表达水平明显降低,但高于空白组NG2各时间点的表达。提示嗅鞘细胞移植后NG2的表达水平降低,嗅鞘细胞具有抑制NG2表达的作用,可消除或减轻细胞外基质中对轴突有抑制作用的化学屏障,这可能是其治疗脊髓损伤促进轴突再生的机制之一。     

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 is associated with acute inflammation after olfactory injury

We previously reported an increase in matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) levels in the olfactory bulb immediately after nerve transection; however, its role remains unknown. In this study, we determined the source of MMP-9 by monitoring the infiltration of inflammatory leukocytes in the olfactory bulb after nerve transection. We used myeloperoxidase to identify neutrophils and CD68 to identify macrophages at days 1, 7, and 10. MMP-9 colocalized with neutrophils at all three time points but was not contained in macrophages. This is the first study to demonstrate that MMP-9 is associated with early inflammatory response after olfactory injury, and provides insight into mechanisms underlying olfactory injury and recovery processes.     

Fate of endogenous stem/progenitor cells following spinal cord injury

The adult mammalian spinal cord contains neural stem and/or progenitor cells that slowly multiply throughout life and differentiate exclusively into glia. The contribution of adult progenitors to repair has been highlighted in recent studies, demonstrating extensive cell proliferation and gliogenesis following central nervous system (CNS) trauma. The present experiments aimed to determine the relative roles of endogenously dividing progenitor cells versus quiescent progenitor cells in posttraumatic gliogenesis. Using the mitotic indicator bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and a retroviral vector, we found that, in the adult female Fisher 344 rat, endogenously dividing neural progenitors are acutely vulnerable in response to T8 dorsal hemisection spinal cord injury. We then studied the population of cells that divide postinjury in the injury epicenter by delivering BrdU or retrovirus at 24 hours after spinal cord injury. Animals were euthanized at five timepoints postinjury, ranging from 6 hours to 9 weeks after BrdU delivery. At all timepoints, we observed extensive proliferation of ependymal and periependymal cells that immunohistochemically resembled stem/progenitor cells. BrdU+ incorporation was noted to be prominent in NG2-immunoreactive progenitors that matured into oligodendrocytes, and in a transient population of microglia. Using a green fluorescence protein (GFP) hematopoietic chimeric mouse, we determined that 90% of the dividing cells in this early proliferation event originate from the spinal cord, whereas only 10% originate from the bone marrow. Our results suggest that dividing, NG2-expressing progenitor cells are vulnerable to injury, but a separate, immature population of neural stem and/or progenitor cells is activated by injury and rapidly divides to replace this vulnerable population.     

NG2 expression in rats with acute T10 spinal cord injury

Rat models of T10 spinal cord injury were established with a clamp method.NG2 expression was detected with immunohistochemical staining and western blot.Ten days after spinal cord injury,the number of NG2-positive cells in the damaged areas and NG2 absorbance were both significantly increased.The findings indicate that acute T10 spinal cord injury in rats can lead to upregulation of NG2 protein expression in damaged areas.     

脑蛋白水解物注射液对NG2蛋白聚糖阳性神经祖细胞增殖的影响

目的探讨脑蛋白水解物注射液(Cerebrolysin,CL)对NG2蛋白聚糖阳性神经祖细胞(NG2细胞)增殖的作用。方法根据文献从成年大鼠海马原代及传代培养NG2细胞,以免疫荧光染色法鉴定细胞性质,以乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)分析法测定细胞活性,以原位缺口末端标记技术(即TUNEL法)观察细胞凋亡,5'-溴脱氧尿嘧啶核苷(BrdU)掺入法鉴定新生细胞。结果CL处置明显增加NG2细胞数,并显著减少TUNEL阳性细胞数,但对BrdU阳性细胞数无明显影响。结论CL能抑制NG2细胞凋亡,从而促进NG2细胞的增殖。     

氨基酸对NG2蛋白聚糖阳性神经祖细胞增殖的影响

目的探讨不同种类氨基酸对神经胶质抗原2(NG2)蛋白聚糖阳性神经祖细胞(NG2细胞)增殖的作用。方法从成年大鼠脑不同区域分离培养NG2细胞,以0.1-0.5mmol/L浓度不同种类氨基酸干预细胞72小时,以乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)分析法测定细胞活性。结果 0.3mmol/L谷氨酸和天冬氨酸显著增加不同脑区来源NG2细胞数(p<0.001)。结论高浓度兴奋性氨基酸(EAAs)能促进NG2细胞的增殖。     

Review of transplantation of neural stem/progenitor cells for spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a debilitating condition often resulting in paralysis, yet currently there is no effective treatment. Stem cell transplantation is a promising therapeutic strategy for promoting tissue repair after SCI. Stem cells offer a renewable source of cells with inherent plasticity for tissue regeneration. Neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) are multipotent cells that self-renew and are committed to the neural lineage, and thus, they are especially suited to SCI repair. NSPCs may differentiate into neural cells after transplantation into the injured spinal cord, replacing lost or damaged cells, providing trophic support, restoring connectivity, and facilitating regeneration. Here, we review experimental studies and considerations for clinical translation of NSPC transplantation for SCI.     

Endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium promotes angiogenesis and is neuroprotective after spinal cord injury

Endothelial progenitor cells secrete a variety of growth factors that inhibit inflammation, promote angiogenesis and exert neuroprotective effects. Therefore, in this study, we investigated whether endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium might have therapeutic effectiveness for the treatment of spinal cord injury using both in vitro and in vivo experiments. After primary culture of bone marrow-derived macrophages, lipopolysaccharide stimulation was used to classically activate macrophages to their proinflammatory phenotype. These cells were then treated with endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium or control medium. Polymerase chain reaction was used to determine mR NA expression levels of related inflammatory factors. Afterwards, primary cultures of rat spinal cord neuronal cells were prepared and treated with H_2O_2 and either endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium or control medium. Hoechst 33258 and propidium iodide staining were used to calculate the proportion of neurons undergoing apoptosis. Aortic ring assay was performed to assess the effect of endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium on angiogenesis. Compared with control medium, endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium mitigated the macrophage inflammatory response at the spinal cord injury site, suppressed apoptosis, and promoted angiogenesis. Next, we used a rat model of spinal cord injury to examine the effects of the endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium in vivo. The rats were randomly administered intraperitoneal injection of PBS, control medium or endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium, once a day, for 6 consecutive weeks. Immunohistochemistry was used to observe neuronal morphology. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated d UTP nick-end labeling assay was performed to detect the proportion of apoptotic neurons in the gray matter. The Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan Locomotor Rating Scale was used to evaluate the recovery of motor function of the bilateral hind limbs after spinal cord injury. Compared with the other two groups, the number of axons was increased, cavities in the spinal cord were decreased, the proportion of apoptotic neurons in the gray matter was reduced, and the Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan score was higher in the endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium group. Taken together, the in vivo and in vitro results suggest that endothelial progenitor cell-conditioned medium suppresses inflammation, promotes angiogenesis, provides neuroprotection, and promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury.     

Muscle after spinal cord injury

The morphological and contractile changes of muscles below the level of the lesion after spinal cord injury (SCI) are dramatic. In humans with SCI, a fiber‐type transformation away from type I begins 4–7 months post‐SCI and reaches a new steady state with predominantly fast glycolytic IIX fibers years after the injury. There is a progressive drop in the proportion of slow myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform fibers and a rise in the proportion of fibers that coexpress both the fast and slow MHC isoforms. The oxidative enzymatic activity starts to decline after the first few months post‐SCI. Muscles from individuals with chronic SCI show less resistance to fatigue, and the speed‐related contractile properties change, becoming faster. These findings are also present in animals. Future studies should longitudinally examine changes in muscles from early SCI until steady state is reached in order to determine optimal training protocols for maintaining skeletal muscle after paralysis. Muscle Nerve, 2009     

Effect of glial cells on remyelination after spinal cord injury

Remyelination plays a key role in functional recovery of axons after spinal cord injury. Glial cells are the most abundant cells in the central nervous system. When spinal cord injury occurs, many glial cells at the lesion site are immediately activated, and different cells differentially affect inflammatory reactions after injury. In this review, we aim to discuss the core role of oligodendrocyte precursor cells and crosstalk with the rest of glia and their subcategories in the remyelination process. Activated astrocytes influence prolif-eration, differentiation, and maturation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells, while activated microglia alter remyelination by regulating the inflammatory reaction after spinal cord injury. Understanding the interac-tion between oligodendrocyte precursor cells and the rest of glia is necessary when designing a therapeutic plan of remyelination after spinal cord injury.     

自体嗅黏膜移植联合β-七叶皂甙钠干预脊髓损伤大鼠基质金属蛋白酶2、9的表达

背景：脊髓损伤后基质金属蛋白酶2、9的过表达与脊髓组织的继发性损伤有关。 目的：观察自体嗅黏膜移植联合β-七叶皂甙钠干预脊髓损伤大鼠脊髓组织内基质金属蛋白酶2、9的表达与动物神经功能的恢复情况。 方法：制作半横断脊髓损伤大鼠模型,随机分为4组,分别于腹腔注射β-七叶皂甙钠或生理盐水,以及损伤处植入自体嗅黏膜。 结果与结论：干预后7,14 d自体嗅黏膜组、β-七叶皂甙钠组、自体嗅黏膜联合β-七叶皂甙钠组BBB评分均高于模型对照组(P < 0.05),自体嗅黏膜联合β-七叶皂甙钠组BBB评分高于自体嗅黏膜组、β-七叶皂甙钠组 (P < 0.05)。干预后1,3,7,14 d自体嗅黏膜联合β-七叶皂甙钠组脊髓内基质金属蛋白酶2、9阳性细胞数少于模型对照组、自体嗅黏膜组、β-七叶皂甙钠组(P < 0.05)。结果提示自体嗅黏膜移植与β-七叶皂甙钠之间有协同作用,可明显改善神经运动功能恢复情况;此种作用可能与其抑制基质金属蛋白酶2、9过度表达有关。     

Induction of neuronal phenotypes from NG2+ glial progenitors by inhibiting epidermal growth factor receptor in mouse spinal cord injury

Besides neural stem cells, some glial cells, such as GFAP+ cells, radial glia, and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells can produce neuronal cells. Attractively, NG2+ glial progenitors exhibit lineage plasticity, and they rapidly proliferate and differentiate in response to central nervous system (CNS) injuries. These attributes of NG2+ glial progenitors make them a promising source of neurons. However, the potential of neuronal regeneration from NG2+ glial progenitors in CNS pathologies remains to be investigated. In this study, we showed that antagonizing epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) function with EGFR inhibitor caused a significant number of proliferative NG2+ glial progenitors to acquire neuronal phenotypes in contusive spinal cord injury (SCI), which presumably led to an accumulation of newly generated neurons and contributed to the improved neural behavioral performance of animals. In addition, the neuronal differentiation of glial progenitors induced by EGFR inhibitor was further confirmed with two different cell lines either in vitro or through ex vivo transplantation experiment. The inhibition of EGFR signaling pathway under the gliogenic conditions could induce these cells to acquire neuronal phenotypes. Furthermore, we find that the Ras‐ERK axis played a key role in neuronal differentiation of NG2+ glial progenitors upon EGFR inhibition. Taken together, our studies suggest that the EGFR inhibitor could promote neurogenesis post SCI, mainly from the NG2+ glial progenitors. These findings support the possibility of evoking endogenous neuronal replacement from NG2+ glial progenitors and suggest that EGFR inhibition may be beneficial to CNS trauma. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.