Fathers Count: The Impact of Paternal Risk Factors on Birth Outcomes

Objective To determine the contribution of paternal factors to the risk of adverse birth outcomes. Methods This is a retrospective cross-sectional analysis using birth certificate data from 2004 to 2015 retrieved from the Finger Lakes Regional Perinatal Data System. Primiparous women with singleton pregnancies were analyzed in the study. Two multivariate logistic regression models were conducted to assess potential paternal risk factors including age, race/ethnicity, and education on four birth outcomes, including preterm birth (PTB), low birthweight (LBW), high birthweight (HBW), and small for gestational age (SGA). Results A total of 36,731 singleton births were included in the analysis. Less paternal education was significantly related to an elevated risk of PTB, LBW, and SGA, even after adjustment for maternal demographic, medical, and lifestyle factors (P?<?0.05). Paternal race/ethnicity was also significantly associated with all four birth outcomes (P?<?0.05) while controlling for maternal factors. Older paternal age was associated with increased odds (OR 1.012, 95% CI 1.003–1.022) of LBW. Maternal race/ethnicity partially mediated the association of paternal race/ethnicity with HBW and SGA. Maternal education partially mediated the relationship between paternal education and SGA. Conclusion Paternal factors were important predictors of adverse birth outcomes. Our results support the inclusion of fathers in future studies and clinical programs aimed at reducing adverse birth outcomes.     

A search for evidence for a paternal age effect independent of a maternal age effect in birth certificate reports of Down's syndrome in New York state

The discovery that in 20% to 30% of Down's syndrome cases the extra chromosome is of paternal origin, and the recent independent report of two groups that maternal age-specific rates are two-fold greater for livebirths to couples in which the father is aged 55 years and over prompted this investigation. Analyses were of coded birth certificate reports of Down's syndrome in Upstate New York residents in the years 1963-1974. The expected numbers of cases, on the assumption of no paternal age effect, were determined at each paternal age interval (and at each paternal age minus maternal age interval) adjusting for an effect of maternal age; these were compared with observed values. There was a slightly lower number of observed than expected cases for fathers aged 55 years and over (ratio = 0.76), and the results exclude with 95% confidence an increase of 1.5-fold or greater in rates in this group after correction for maternal age. There was, moreover, no overall evidence for any trend to increasing rates with paternal age. Regression analyses in which the data were first fit to functions of maternal age and subsequently terms involving paternal age were introduced also revealed no evidence that paternal age made a significant independent contribution to the observed rates in contrast to the conclusion of earlier positive reports.     

Is paternal age associated with an increased risk of low birthweight,preterm delivery,and multiple birth?

OBJECTIVE: To determine if paternal age elevates the risk of low birthweight (< 2500g, LBW), preterm birth (< 37 weeks gestation), and multiple gestation among mothers whose age does not predict an elevated risk. DESIGN/METHODS: Population data on birth outcome, maternal age and paternal age was obtained from Alberta Health and Wellness for all births 1990-1996. RESULTS: Among women aged 25 to 29, regardless of parity, there was no linear relationship between paternal age and preterm birth or LBW. However, multiple birth rates increased with increased paternal age (p < 0.01). Among singleton births, advanced paternal age (>50 years) increased the risk of LBW and preterm birth (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Paternal age is not a risk factor for LBW or preterm delivery among low risk women. The increased risk of multiple birth with increased paternal age, regardless of parity, requires confirmation among other populations.     

Trisomy 18 in Kuwait.

BACKGROUND: Trisomy 18 (Edwards' syndrome, T18) is the second most common trisomy in man. We describe 118 children with regular T18 who were ascertained clinically and cytogenetically in the Kuwait Medical Genetics Centre during 1980-1997. METHODS: Ascertainment of T18 cases was performed shortly after birth. Chromosomal studies were carried out in addition to other relevant investigations. To investigate the factors associated with T18, a case-control study was carried out with 131 normal healthy newborns. Studied factors included maternal and paternal age, birth order, abortion, associated malformation, and survival. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to adjust for confounding between variables. RESULTS: There was a preponderance of females among T18 cases (female:male ratio 2.1:1). The majority of T18 cases (53%) died before the second week of life. The most common associated anomalies were: congenital heart (38.1%) and gastrointestinal (25.4%). Multiplicity of malformations was also observed. Significant seasonal variation in T18 cases was detected with a peak in spring. Of the 118 T18 cases, 59 were delivered during 1994-1997 (average overall T18 birth prevalence rate 8.95 per 10 000 live births [95% CI: 6.66-11.23]). Concerning maternal age, 30.5% of the T18 cases' mothers were > or =35 years compared to 10.7% in the control group. The difference was statistically significant, P = 0.002. Logistic regression analysis showed that maternal age >30 years was a significant risk factor for T18, after adjusting for confounding with paternal age. Paternal age and abortion were not found to be significant risk factors. CONCLUSION: Trisomy 18 birth prevalence rate is high in Kuwait with advanced maternal age as a significant risk factor.     

Advanced parental age and the risk of autism spectrum disorder

This study evaluated independent effects of maternal and paternal age on risk of autism spectrum disorder. A case-cohort design was implemented using data from 10 US study sites participating in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network. The 1994 birth cohort included 253,347 study-site births with complete parental age information. Cases included 1,251 children aged 8 years with complete parental age information from the same birth cohort and identified as having an autism spectrum disorder based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision criteria. After adjustment for the other parent's age, birth order, maternal education, and other covariates, both maternal and paternal age were independently associated with autism (adjusted odds ratio for maternal age > or =35 vs. 25-29 years = 1.3, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 1.6; adjusted odds ratio for paternal age > or =40 years vs. 25-29 years = 1.4, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 1.8). Firstborn offspring of 2 older parents were 3 times more likely to develop autism than were third- or later-born offspring of mothers aged 20-34 years and fathers aged <40 years (odds ratio = 3.1, 95% confidence interval: 2.0, 4.7). The increase in autism risk with both maternal and paternal age has potential implications for public health planning and investigations of autism etiology.     

上海市徐汇区2006-2012年新生儿早产的危险因素分析

目的 了解徐汇区新生儿早产发生的危险因素,为预防早产的发生提供依据。方法 采集徐汇区2006年1月1日-2012年12月31日所有在上海市医院内出生的户籍婴儿信息,根据病例对照研究方法,采用单因素非条件Logistic回归分析和多因素非条件Logistic回归分析方法,分析新生儿早产的危险因素。结果 2006-2012年徐汇区共38 585例婴儿,平均早产发生率为5.81%。单因素非条件Logistic回归分析认为出生畸形、胎次、产次、胎数、母亲年龄、父亲年龄为早产可能的危险因素。最后通过多因素Logistic回归进行分析,采用逐步前进法,认为母亲年龄、出生畸形和胎数是对早产发生有影响,其OR值分别为1.041(95%CI:1.029~1.054)、2.362(95%CI:1.621~3.442)、31.325(95%CI:27.200~36.074)。结论 母亲年龄的增加、多胎以及出生畸形等会增加新生儿早产的危险性。     

Parental age at child's birth and son's risk of prostate cancer. The Framingham Study

The authors examined the relation of parental age at birth to the risk of prostate cancer among sons with the use of data from the Framingham Study. During 42 years of follow-up (1949-1993), 141 prostate cancer cases occurred in 2,164 men. All but six cases were confirmed by histologic report. The incidence rate of prostate cancer increased from 1.70 per 1,000 person-years among sons in the lowest quartile of paternal age (<27 years), to 2.00, 2.32, and 2.74 among those of each increased paternal age category (27-<32, 32-<38, and > or =38 years), respectively. After adjustment for age and other covariates, men in the second, third, and oldest quartiles of paternal age had 1.2, 1.3, and 1.7 times increased risk of prostate cancer compared with men in the youngest quartile (p for trend = 0.049). Further adjustment for maternal age did not change the relation materially. The association of older paternal age with risk of early-onset prostate cancer (<65 years) appeared stronger than that with late-onset disease (265 years). No increased risk of prostate cancer was observed among subjects in the older maternal age category. The effect of increased paternal age on prostate cancer risk may operate through increased germ cell mutation rate or by mechanisms not yet defined.     

Advanced paternal age and risk of fetal death: a cohort study

A possible detrimental paternal age effect on offspring health due to mutations of paternal origin should be reflected in an association between paternal age and fetal loss. The authors used data from a prospective study of 23,821 pregnant women recruited consecutively to the Danish National Birth Cohort from 1997 to 1999 to assess the association between paternal age and fetal death. Fathers of the pregnancies were identified by record linkage to population registers. The paternal age-related risks of fetal death and its components, early and late fetal loss, were estimated using survival analysis. Pregnancies fathered by a man aged 50 or more years (n = 124) had almost twice the risk of ending in a fetal loss compared with pregnancies with younger fathers (hazard ratio = 1.88, 95% confidence interval: 0.93, 3.82), after adjustment for maternal age, reproductive history, and maternal lifestyle during pregnancy. Various approaches to adjustment for potential residual confounding of the relation by maternal age did not affect the relative risk estimates. The paternal age-related risk of late fetal death was higher than the risk of early fetal death and started to increase from the age of 45 years. It should, however, be interpreted cautiously because of the restricted number of fetal deaths.     

隐睾发生的危险因素研究

目的：研究隐睾发生的危险因素。方法：采用以医院为基础的1：2配比的病例对照研究方法，按统一的调查方法对99例隐睾及198例对照组面对面问卷调查。应用SAS6。12软件对所调查因素进行单因素及多因素logistic回归分析，结果：胎儿隐睾与母亲孕早期感冒伴发热（OR＝9．37，95％CI：2．25－39．09），孕期发生先兆流产（OR＝4．66，95％CI，2．02＝10．74），孕期发生先兆子痫（OR＝16．33，95％CI：1．40－191．20），父亲职业性接触农药（OR＝12．79％CI；2．90－56．43），低出生体重（OR＝5．77，95％CI：1．39－23．98），母亲怀孕年龄＜24（OR＝2．89，95％CI：1．29－4．06）呈正相关。结论：母亲孕早期感冒伴发热，孕期发生先兆流产及先兆子痫，父亲职业性接触农药，低出体重，母亲怀孕年龄＜24岁是隐睾发病的主要危险因素。     

新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征高危因素893例分析

目的 探讨新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征(respiratory distress syndrome,RDS)发病的高危因素,为临床治疗提供参考依据。方法 对2007年1月-2012年10月在八一儿童医院新生儿监护病房住院确诊为RDS的893例新生儿进行回顾性研究。根据胎龄分为足月儿组(148例)和早产儿组(745例),将两组的性别、胎龄、出生体重、分娩方式、窒息、胎盘异常、胎膜早破、宫内感染、胎粪吸入综合征、孕母糖尿病、孕母高血压指各标进行组内及组间比较。采用SPSS 19.0对数据进行统计分析。结果 单因素方差分析显示男性、剖官产、宫内感染、宫内窘迫是足月儿RDS发生的高危因素,早产、胎膜早破、孕母高血压、出生窒息是早产儿RDS发病的高危因素,多因素Logistic回归分析提示,胎龄、分娩方式、出生体重、胎膜早破、出生窒息、孕母糖尿病、孕母高血压、宫内感染为RDS发病危险因素(P<0.05),各因素在RDS发生中作用的大小顺序依次为:剖宫产＞孕母高血压＞宫内感染＞出生体重＞孕母糖尿病＞出生窒息(OR值分别为71.136、66.117、65.824、38.565、4.935、1.940)。结论 RDS的发生是多因素的,早产、剖宫产、宫内感染、窒息缺氧、孕母高血压、孕母糖尿病等与新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征的发生密切相关,临床应予以重视。     

Influence of paternal characteristics on the risk of low birth weight.

The combined effects of maternal and paternal factors on the risk of delivering low birth weight (less than 2,500 g) and very low birth weight (less than 1,500 g) infants were examined among married parents. Using 1984-1988 natality data compiled by the National Center for Health Statistics, the authors found paternal education and race to have independent effects on the risks of low birth weight and very low birth weight after adjustment for maternal characteristics. The odds of low and very low birth weight decreased with increasing paternal education. Adjustment for paternal education decreased the effect of maternal education on the risks of low and very low birth weight. Additionally, the examination of paternal race led to the identification of a subgroup of married black women with lower risks of low and very low birth weight than married black mothers overall. These data suggest that paternal characteristics should be used, in addition to maternal characteristics, to describe the risks of low and very low birth weight.     

妊娠相关血浆蛋白A对唐氏综合征胎儿的筛查价值

目的:探讨母体血清妊娠相关血浆蛋白A(pregnancyassociatedplasmaproteinA,PAPP-A)在妊娠各期对唐氏综合征胎儿的筛查价值。方法:对3733例单胎妊娠的孕妇进行血清PAPP-A水平检测,其中对586例孕妇取羊水或脐带血检测胎儿染色体核型,5例新生儿出生后取外周血进行染色体核型检查。结果:①唐氏综合征组的孕妇血清PAPP-A<0.40MoM的占60%,中位数为0.32MoM,明显低于正常组(1.02MoM)(P=0.000);唐氏综合征组的孕妇年龄及丈夫年龄中位数均明显高于正常组(P=0.000和P=0.004)。②以PAPP-A<0.40MoM为诊断界点,假阳性率为5%。当假阳性率为5%时,单项母体血清PAPP-A、单项孕妇年龄、母体血清PAPP-A联合孕妇年龄及丈夫年龄筛查唐氏综合征胎儿的灵敏度分别为60%、50%、80%。结论:①PAPP-A联合孕妇年龄及丈夫年龄的筛查灵敏度高于单项PAPP-A。②PAPP-A在妊娠早期、中期、晚期筛查唐氏综合征胎儿均有价值。     

Paternal age and the risk of birth defects in Norway

PURPOSE: We studied 1,869,388 births from The Medical Birth Registry of Norway to assess the effect of father's age on risks of birth defects in offspring. METHOD: Thirteen separate categories were studied including pooled categories of neural tube defects and any type of defect. We used logistic regression models to adjust for maternal age, year of birth, maternity institution, parity, and correlation between siblings. RESULTS: There was little evidence of increased risk by high paternal age for any category of defects, except for a category of "other central nervous system" where risk estimates were 2.5-fold (95% CI: 1.2-5.5) for fathers aged between 45 and 49 years compared with the reference age group (25-29 years). The risk for neural tube defects was 1.3-fold (95% CI: 1.1-1.5) when the father was aged between 20 and 24 years relative to the reference. A pattern of moderately higher risks for younger fathers was consistent for anencephaly and spina bifida. Increased risk of heart defects was also estimated among children of young fathers. CONCLUSIONS: This study does not show consistent evidence that paternal ageing is a risk for birth defects among offspring. Low paternal age, or factors associated with younger parents, may however be associated with increased risk of neural tube defects in their offspring.     

Down syndrome and maternal age: changes over time and review of risk factors

During 1987-1996, 292 Egyptian Down syndrome (Trisomy 21) infants were identified in Human Genetics Department in Alexandria. They comprised 139 males and 153 females (sex ratio 0.91). Data on maternal age, paternal age and birth order were analyzed. Maternal ages were examined for transient changes over time and for linear trends. Significant changes in maternal age over the 10 years period of study were observed. First born infants were at greater risk of trisomy 21 than higher order of births, independent of maternal age.     

Father’s Education: An Independent Marker of Risk for Preterm Birth

To explore the association between paternal education and preterm birth, taking into account maternal social and economic factors. We analyzed data from a population-based cross-sectional postpartum survey, linked with birth certificates, of women who gave birth in California from 1999 through 2005 (n = 21,712). Women whose infants’ fathers had not completed college had significantly higher odds of preterm birth than women whose infants’ fathers were college graduates, even after adjusting for maternal education and family income [OR (95% CI) = 1.26 (1.01–1.58)]. The effect of paternal education was greater among unmarried women than among married women. Paternal education may represent an important indicator of risk for preterm birth, reflecting social and/or economic factors not measured by maternal education or family income. Researchers and policy makers committed to understanding and reducing socioeconomic disparities in birth outcomes should consider paternal as well as maternal socioeconomic factors in their analyses and policy decisions.     

Parent's age and the risk of oral clefts

BACKGROUND: Some malformations are clearly associated with older maternal age, but the effect of older age of the father is less certain. The aim of this study is to determine the degree to which maternal age and paternal age independently influence the risk of having a child with oral clefts. METHODS: Among the 1,489,014 live births in Denmark during 1973-1996, there were 1920 children with nonsyndromic cleft lip with or without cleft palate and 956 children with nonsyndromic cleft palate. We used logistic regression to assess the impact of parental age on the occurrence of cleft lip with or without cleft palate and cleft palate. Interaction between mother's and father's age was included in the analysis. RESULTS: Separate analyses of mother's and father's age showed that older age was associated with increased risk of both cleft lip with or without cleft palate and cleft palate only. In a joint analysis, both maternal and paternal ages were associated with the risk of cleft lip with or without cleft palate, but the contribution of each was dependent on the age of the other parent. In the analysis of cleft palate only, the effect of maternal age disappeared, leaving only paternal age as a risk factor. CONCLUSION: Both high maternal age and high paternal age were associated with cleft lip with or without cleft palate. Higher paternal age but not maternal age increased the risk of cleft palate only.     

A temporary increase of down syndrome among births of young mothers in Norway: An effect of risk unrelated to maternal age?

The Medical Birth Registry of Norway carries out a population-based surveillance of birth defects on a routine basis. An increased proportion of newborn with Down syndrome was seen among children of young mothers during 1985-1986. Three alternative explanations were considered: a first representing a maternal age specific effect, a second based on a general increase in a subgroup of cases caused by factors not related to maternal age, and a third based on the assumption that a particular birth cohort of young women was carrying a high risk. As 1987 and 1988 showed very low proportions in all age groups, the last explanation was considered less likely. Statistical modeling was used to explore which of the two remaining explanations of the temporary increase was the more likely. The observed changes were compatible with a change in the occurrence of a group of maternal age-independent Down syndrome cases, from 4.59 per 10,000 in 1973-1984 and again in 1987-1988 to a temporary high of 7.68 per 10,000 in 1985-1986. However, the possibility of an age specific change only among young mothers could not be ruled out.     

An epidemiologic case-control study of central nervous system tumors in children and parental occupational exposures

A population-based case-control study was conducted with 338 patients less than 15 years of age who were diagnosed with a primary tumor of the central nervous system from January 1968 through December 1977 in 53 contiguous New York counties. The study also included 676 controls who were selected from the birth certificate files of the New York State Department of Health. Parental occupational exposures at the time of each child's birth and at the time of tumor diagnosis were derived from maternal interviews. The current data set failed to show any consistent association between childhood central nervous system tumor risk and paternal occupational exposures to hydrocarbons or to electromagnetic fields, or employment in the aerospace industry or pulp and paper manufacturing. Findings for occupational exposures to ionizing radiation were also inconsistent. A positive association was observed between central nervous system tumor risk and paternal exposures to ionizing radiation based on industrial codes. Odds ratios ranged from 1.71 to 2.15. This association was not observed when paternal occupational titles were used to define exposure (range of odds ratios, 1.01-1.10). Maternal exposures to ionizing radiation were not related to risk regardless of the classification scheme used.     

Parental age as a risk factor for isolated congenital malformations in a Polish population

Currently available data on the relationship between the prevalence of isolated congenital malformations and parental age are inconsistent and frequently divergent. We utilised the data from the Polish Registry of Congenital Malformations (PRCM) to accurately assess the interplay between maternal and paternal age in the risk of isolated non-syndromic congenital malformations.
Out of 902 452 livebirths we studied 8683 children aged 0–2 years registered in the PRCM. Logistic regression was used to simultaneously adjust the risk estimates for maternal and paternal age. Our data indicated that paternal and maternal age were independently associated with several congenital malformations. Based on our data, young maternal and paternal ages were independently associated with gastroschisis. In addition, young maternal age, but not young paternal age, carried a higher risk of neural tube defects. Advanced maternal and paternal ages were both independently associated with congenital heart defects. Moreover, there was a positive association between advanced paternal age and hypospadias, cleft palate, and cleft lip (with or without cleft palate).
No significant relationships between parental age and the following congenital malformations were detected: microcephaly, hydrocephaly, oesophageal atresia, atresia or stenosis of small and/or large intestine, ano-rectal atresia or stenosis, renal agenesis or hypoplasia, cystic kidney disease, congenital hydronephrosis, diaphragmatic hernia and omphalocele.     

A new sequential procedure for surveillance of Down's syndrome

A new method is proposed for the surveillance of Down's syndrome among newborn. Despite the strong dependence of overall risk of Down's syndrome on maternal age, it has been suggested that an environmentally induced increase in risk may be additive over all maternal ages. The surveillance method introduced here is specifically designed to detect such changes. The method is based on registry data for successive periods for a given population. It is assumed that the number of Down's syndrome cases as well as the total number of births are known in all maternal age groups. Tables of average run lengths until an alarm (ARLs) are calculated for a total sample size of 14,500 in each period, the approximate number of births in a three-month period in Norway. Comparison with the Poisson cusum shows that the new surveillance method can detect moderate additive increases significantly faster. Applied retrospectively to quarterly data from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway for 1978–89, the proposed method was close to an alarm in 1985 and actually signalled a strong alarm in 1986, reflecting a previously reported increase in risk in this period. The cusum method was not so sensitive to the aberration in Down's syndrome risks in 1985 and 1986.