Clinical practice guidelines of the Spanish Society of Cardiology for surgical risk assessment in cardial patients treated with non-cardiac surgery

All patients undergoing a surgical intervention require a cardiovascular evaluation that establishes the surgical risk. On the other hand, an important proportion of the deaths that happened during the surgery are due to cardiovascular complications, many of them could be avoided with a cardiac risk screening. The surgery and the anesthesia subject the patient to stress situations during the perioperative period that forces the check upon capacity of the patient to respond to those demands, dissuading surgery if it considered that the risk is very high. The rate of major surgery in elderly patients is growing, with the increase in cardiovascular complications, mainly myocardial infarction, unstable angina and perioperative heart failure. Following we establish some recommendations for the cardiovascular assessment of the cardiac patient that will undergo noncardiac surgery.     

Preoperative plasma N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide concentration and perioperative cardiovascular risk in elderly patients.

BACKGROUND: The prediction of perioperative cardiovascular complications is important in the medical management of patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. Several indices have been developed, but a simpler, more practical and accurate method is needed. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) concentration before operation can be used to predict perioperative cardiovascular complications in elderly patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. METHODS AND RESULTS: The study group comprised 279 patients older than 60 years who were scheduled for elective surgery. The plasma NT-proBNP concentration, clinical cardiac indices and left ventricular ejection fraction were measured prior to operation. The postoperative cardiac outcomes were followed and predictors for postoperative cardiac risk were identified. Cardiovascular complications occurred in 25 patients (9.0%). Age, the incidence of prior ischemic heart disease or congestive heart failure, and the plasma NT-proBNP concentration were significantly higher in patients with perioperative cardiovascular complications than in those without. Using receiver operating characteristic analysis to predict perioperative cardiovascular events, a cut-off value of 201 pg/ml was identified as the optimal predictor of perioperative complications, showing a sensitivity of 80.0% and specificity of 81.1%. Multivariate analysis revealed that NT-proBNP >201 pg/ml (odds ratio (OR) 7.6, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.2-26.6, p=0.003) and revised cardiac index > or =2 (OR 6.3, 95% CI 1.7-23.8, p=0.007) were independent predictors for perioperative cardiovascular complications. CONCLUSIONS: Elevated NT-proBNP levels are independently associated with an increase in the risk of perioperative cardiovascular complications in elderly patients undergoing noncardiac and nonvascular operations.     

Preoperative Evaluation of Patients with Possible Coronary Artery Disease

During noncardiac surgery, patients may be at risk for developing cardiac events, related to underlying coronary artery disease. Therefore, perioperative cardiac complications remain an area of clinical interest and concern in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. Over the years, perioperative risk assessment has evolved significantly to detect surgical patients with myocardium at risk due the coronary artery disease. In addition, many efforts have been made to reduce the cardiac risk of patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. The present review article will focus on the definition of high cardiac risk surgery and will discuss patient-related cardiac risk factors. In addition, the preoperative cardiac tests available to detect patients with coronary artery disease and strategies to reduce perioperative cardiac risk, as recommended in most recent perioperative guidelines, will be outlined.     

Intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation support in the high-risk cardiac patient undergoing urgent noncardiac surgery

Patients with a recent myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, sever angina, or uncorrected multivessel coronary artery disease are at increased risk of cardiac complications after major noncardiac surgery. Although invasive hemodynamic monitoring and preoperative optimization of cardiac status may lead to some reduction in the rate of perioperative cardiac events, the mortality from such events remains high. We report our experience with the use of perioperative intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation in eight patients with unstable coronary syndromes or severe coronary artery disease who underwent urgent noncardiac surgery. There were no perioperative cardiac events while the intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) was in place. There were two postoperative cardiac events (non-fatal myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure) in the first postoperative week after the IABP was removed. One patient required emergent femoral thrombectomy as a result of intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation and subsequently died of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation should be considered as an adjunct to maintain hemodynamic stability for the high-risk cardiac patient about to undergo urgent or emergent noncardiac surgery.     

Coronary risk assessment in the management of patients undergoing noncardiac vascular surgery

Patients scheduled for noncardiac vascular surgery are at significant risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality due to underlying symptomatic or asymptomatic coronary artery disease. This review will give an overview of current preoperative cardiac risk assessment strategies for patients undergoing noncardiac vascular surgery. Clinical cardiac risk scores are useful tools for the simple identification of patients with an increased perioperative cardiac risk. These risk scores include factors as age, history of myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, congestive heart failure, cerebrovascular events, diabetes mellitus, and renal dysfunction. Based on these cardiac risk scores further cardiac testing might be warranted in patients at increased risk. Recent developments in laboratory tests, noninvasive cardiac imaging, cardiac stress testing, and invasive cardiac imaging in the preoperative work-up of vascular surgical patients are reviewed.     

Perioperative assessment and management of patients with valvular heart disease undergoing noncardiac surgery

Valvular heart disease in a variety of forms is not uncommon, especially among older patients undergoing noncardiac surgery, and can be associated with increased perioperative cardiac risk. Patients with aortic stenosis are at greatest risk, although other valve lesions also can pose the risk of increased perioperative morbidity. During preoperative evaluation, attention to the presence, nature and severity of valvular heart disease allows appropriate perioperative monitoring and therapy with a goal to minimize the risk of perioperative cardiac morbidity and mortality associated with noncardiac surgery. Appropriate antibiotic prophylaxis reduces the risk of infective endocarditis. Finally, some patients with valvular heart disease and all patients with a mechanical valve prosthesis require long-term anticoagulation, which must be managed during the perioperative period.     

Prediction of cardiac and pulmonary complications related to elective abdominal and noncardiac thoracic surgery in geriatric patients

PURPOSE: Major cardiac and pulmonary complications associated with abdominal and noncardiac thoracic surgery are a common cause of mortality and serious morbidity in elderly patients. We postulated that a simple, inexpensive bicycle exercise test could provide objective documentation of cardiopulmonary reserve and, therefore, predict perioperative pulmonary as well as cardiac complications. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Prior to elective surgery, 177 patients aged 65 years or older had assessment of the clinical history, results of physical examination, electrocardiogram, chest radiograph, blood chemistries, pulmonary function test findings, supine exercise test results, Dripps classification, and Goldman cardiac risk factors. Observations in patients with and without major perioperative cardiac and/or pulmonary complications were compared using univariate analysis followed by a multivariate logistic regression procedure. RESULTS: Major perioperative complications were pulmonary in 24 patients, cardiac in 25 patients, and either cardiac or pulmonary in 39 patients. By multivariate analysis, inability to perform two minutes of supine bicycle exercise raising the heart rate above 99 beats/minute was the best predictor of perioperative pulmonary, cardiac, and combined cardiopulmonary complication (p less than 0.0005). Among 108 patients who were able to achieve these exercise criteria, cardiac or pulmonary complications occurred in 10 patients (9.3%), with one death (0.9%). Among 69 patients unable to exercise satisfactorily, cardiac or pulmonary complications occurred in 29 patients (42%), with five total deaths (7.2%). CONCLUSION: Objective measurement of exercise capacity by supine bicycle ergometry appears to be of clinical value for preoperative risk stratification for both pulmonary and cardiac complications prior to major elective abdominal or noncardiac thoracic surgery in elderly patients.     

The usefulness of clinical indexes in the evaluation of cardiovascular risk in non cardiac surgery

AIM: The preoperative cardiac evaluation of a patient who undergoes noncardiac surgery is a very important problem, particularly for diagnostic tools used. Aim of this study is to test the usefulness of 4 most used clinical indexes for the evaluation of cardiovascular risk in the management of patients who undergo noncardiac surgery. METHODS: The study is based on a retrospective analysis of a group of 45 patients, who underwent extracardiac surgery in biennium 2002-2004. The cardiovascular risk scores of Goldman, Detsky, Lee and Eagle were used; a comparison among the different scores was done. RESULTS: Six out of our 45 patients had perioperative cardiovascular complications, and 4 of them died. The Eagle and Lee scores were more predictive than Goldman and Detsky ones. About the 13 echocardiographic tests recorded, no one of them modified the patient preoperative risk. CONCLUSIONS: In the preoperative assessment of risk, the Eagle score was more useful than the others ones and improved the negative predictive value of the Goldman and Detsky scores. The preventive application of the clinical indexes allows optimizing the preoperative stratification of the risk, limiting the request of useless examinations and offering to the patient a well appropriated preoperative management, reducing the incidence of complications.     

并发心血管病的80岁以上患者行非心脏手术围术期处理

目的 :探讨并发心血管疾病的 80岁以上高龄患者行非心脏手术围术期处理的特殊性。方法 :总结行这类手术患者 94例 ,术前行各项检查 ,评估心血管系统功能异常程度 ,并作相应的准备 ,选择合适的麻醉方法、药物、监测及调控措施 ,预防术中心肌氧供需失衡和心血管事件发生。结果 :术前心血管疾病以心肌供血不足的发生率 （83% ）居首位 ,其次是高血压或低血压 （6 1% ） ,列居第三位的是各种类型心律不齐 （46 % ）。接受扩冠脉血管治疗 2 2例 ,营养心肌治疗 6 2例 ,抗高血压治疗 4 1例 ,抗心律失常治疗 2 7例。上腹部手术 76 %选用全麻 ,下腹部、下肢手术均选用椎管内麻醉。术中心肌供血不足、高血压或低血压和心律不齐的发生率分别较术前下降 11% ,5 %和 6 %。结论 :高龄患者并发心血管疾病以心肌供血不足最常见 ,术前充分准备、麻醉选择适当、术中调控合理是安全渡过围术期的重要措施     

Perioperative hemodynamic measurements with an implantable monitoring system (Chronicle) in a patient with severe heart failure undergoing non-cardiac surgery

A 53-year-old male patient with severe chronic heart failure due to ischemic cardiomyopathy (LVEF 25%) awaiting heart transplantation was admitted for resection of a bladder tumor. The patient underwent implantation of a Chronicle implantable hemodynamic monitor (IHM) two years before. Thus, perioperative monitoring of heart rate, right ventricular systolic, diastolic and pulse pressure, dP/dt and estimated pulmonary artery diastolic pressure through a lead implanted in the right ventricle was performed. In the postoperative period the patient developed low-output syndrome requiring catecholamine treatment. The patient was weaned from mechanical ventilation uneventfully the same day. However, he developed symptomatic and hemodynamic worsening of heart failure shortly after reduction of inotropes and required prolonged medical treatment with catecholamines. Patients with cardiac disease are known to be at increased risk for cardiovascular complications after noncardiac surgery. Therefore, it has been suggested that such patients could potentially benefit from perioperative invasive hemodynamic monitoring. For the first time, we report a case of perioperative continuous hemodynamic monitoring with a long term-implanted device in a potential heart transplant patient.     

The risk of noncardiac surgery in patients with heart disease: a new way for an easy approach to a right preoperative assessment]

The aim of cardiovascular preoperative evaluation in noncardiac surgery is to assess the current cardiovascular status of patients, to find underlying unknown diseases, to advise about medical management for patients in the preoperative period and, eventually, to postpone noncardiac surgery until cardiac conditions are improved or stabilized. The basic clinical evaluation, obtained by history, physical and ECG examination, provides enough data to estimate the cardiovascular risk. Cardiovascular risk factors and specific surgery risk have a huge importance in this evaluation; the specific surgery risk can be classified into three categories: high, intermediate, and low. However, the evaluation of cardiac risk is not simple and the eventual legal consequences are important. For this reason we propose this hypothesis for an easy approach to a right preoperative assessment based on a succession of eight steps; this way would be a support for specialists and young physicians that are called to give a clinical report on surgery timing and on possible problems of patients with cardiovascular disease undergoing noncardiac surgery.     

Noncardiac surgery following percutaneous coronary intervention.

Patient with coronary artery disease (CAD) undergoing major noncardiac surgery (NCS) are at increased risk of serious perioperative cardiac complications. At the same time, safety of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) before noncardiac surgery has been questioned. This paper reviews the available literature regarding the safety of PCI before NCS. At the same time, cardiac evaluation before NCS, perioperative medical management of patients undergoing NCS, and percutaneous coronary intervention and timing of NCS is also discussed.     

Perioperative risk. Review of two guidelines for assessing older adults. American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association

Elective in-patient surgery is a common occurrence among older persons and primary care physicians are routinely called on to provide preoperative assessment and perioperative risk management of these patients. Older patients undergoing noncardiac surgery may be at increased risk for cardiac or cardiovascular complications, thus perioperative assessment of risk in this population is prudent. Although the range of possible screens and diagnostic tools can make this task unwieldly, the clinical practice guidelines make it more manageable. Two guidelines in particular--one published jointly by the American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association, the other by the American College of Physicians--are particularly suited to perioperative assessment and risk management.     

Perioperative risk of noncardiac surgery associated with aortic stenosis

The perioperative risk of noncardiac surgery in patients with aortic stenosis (AS) remains ill-defined, and the few studies published have reported conflicting results. A sample of patients from the National Hospital Discharge Survey database diagnosed with AS who underwent any noncardiac surgical procedure was searched. Patients who underwent any cardiac surgery were excluded. Patients with AS were matched by decile of age and surgical risk for twice as many controls. A discharge diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and death was used as the end points for analysis. From 1996 to 2002, 5,149 patients with a diagnosis of AS had undergone noncardiac surgery and were matched with 10,284 controls. The incidence of AMI was greater in patients with AS than in controls (3.86% vs 2.03%, p <0.001). After correcting for gender and the presence of coronary artery disease, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus in a multivariate logistic regression model, the presence of AS was associated with an increased likelihood of AMI (odds ratio 1.55, 95% confidence interval 1.27 to 1.90, p <0.001). There was no significantly increased risk for death in patients with AS versus controls. In the era of more intense perioperative medical management of patients who undergo noncardiac surgery, the presence of AS increases the risk for perioperative AMI but not overall mortality. The impact of the actual severity of AS on outcomes with noncardiac surgery needs further study.     

Heart rate variability and cardiac troponin I are incremental and independent predictors of one-year all-cause mortality after major noncardiac surgery in patients at risk of coronary artery disease

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine whether perioperative measurements of heart rate variability (HRV) and cardiac troponin I (cTnI) add additional prognostic information to established risk scores for first-year mortality in patients at risk of coronary artery disease (CAD) undergoing major noncardiac surgery. BACKGROUND: In cardiac-risk patients undergoing major noncardiac surgery, the short- and long-term prognoses are mainly influenced by perioperative cardiac complications. Heart rate variability and cTnI are important prognostic markers in patients with congestive heart failure and myocardial infarction. METHODS: In a prospective study, 173 patients with CAD or at high risk of CAD undergoing major noncardiac surgery were followed up for one year. The main outcome measure was all-cause mortality. In addition to clinical parameters and established risk scores, HRV and cTnI were assessed perioperatively. RESULTS: Twenty-eight (16%) patients died within one year. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed three findings that were independently associated with death within the first year after surgery: the revised cardiac risk index (odds ratio 6.2 [95% confidence interval 1.6 to 25], depressed HRV before induction of anesthesia (16.2 [2.8 to 94]), and elevation of cTnI on postoperative day 1 or 2 (9.8 [3.0 to 32]). CONCLUSIONS: Depressed HRV before induction of anesthesia and elevated cTnI postoperatively are independent and powerful predictors of one-year mortality for patients at risk of CAD undergoing major noncardiac surgery and add incremental prognostic information to established risk scores that only consider preoperative information.     

Management Strategies for Noncardiac Surgery Following a Coronary Artery Event

Purpose of Review

Coronary artery event includes acute coronary syndrome (ACS), percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), and coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. Following such an event, risk of noncardiac surgery is increased. Of major concern is what can make this surgery safer?

Recent Findings

High functional capacity improves cardiovascular (CV) risk; at least 4.0 metabolic equivalents (METs) on stress test are favorable. Risk scores can suggest need for further evaluation. Coronary angiography prior to surgery usually is not indicated since revascularization shows disappointing CV risk reduction results. Due to high association of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) with coronary artery disease (CAD), low ankle-brachial index (ABI) indicates increased CV risk. New perioperative beta blockade has shown disappointing benefit, but if ongoing should be continued. De novo perioperative beta blockade is for the highest CV risk patient undergoing noncardiac vascular surgery. Good evidence supports CV risk reduction from new or existing statin in the perioperative period, especially for the diabetic. Diabetics should also be on an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) secondarily, during the perioperative period to decrease 30-day perioperative mortality.

Summary

Optimal timing of elective noncardiac surgery following a coronary artery event appears to be 180 days with CV risk decreased by a statin and an ACEI or an ARB.

     

内科疾病对非心脏手术病人术中心血管并发症的影响

目的 探讨老年非心脏手术病人合并的内科疾病对术中心血管并发症的影响。方法 回顾分析３０８８例老年非心脏手术病人的临床资料。结果 合并各种内科疾病的老年人术中心血管并发症的发生率明显高于正常老年人组，其中以慢支和９或）合并肺气肿及心绞痛病人术中心智力这并发症发病率最高。心电图及超声心动图检查结果阳性的病人术中心血和并发症的发病率明显增高。结论 老年人合并各种内科疾病均可明显增加术中心血管并发症发生，     

Usefulness of hypotension during dobutamine echocardiography in predicting perioperative cardiac events

This study was undertaken to determine the prognostic significance of hypotension induced during preoperative dobutamine stress echocardiography (DSE) before vascular and noncardiac thoracic surgery. Wall motion abnormality during DSE predicts perioperative risk. Although hypotension during DSE has not been shown to correlate with the presence or severity of coronary artery disease, its significance in perioperative risk assessment is unknown. We retrospectively studied 300 patients who had DSE within 6 months of noncardiac surgery. Perioperative events including death, myocardial infarction, ischemia, and arrhythmias were recorded. Odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were used to examine the association between clinical and echocardiographic variables and perioperative events. A hypotensive response during DSE was seen in 85 patients (28%). Forty-eight patients (16%) had 54 perioperative complications including 4 cardiac-related deaths, 10 myocardial infarctions, 12 myocardial ischemic events, and 28 arrhythmias. Hypotension during DSE was predictive of the combined end point of perioperative cardiac mortality, myocardial infarction, and ischemia (odds ratio 4.04, 95% confidence interval 1.72 to 9.51). In a multivariate logistic regression model, hypotension during DSE remained a significant predictor (odds ratio 4.10, p<0.01). DSE-related hypotension was predictive of perioperative cardiac events and therefore may have a role in risk stratification before vascular or noncardiac thoracic surgery.     

Recognition and management of preoperative risk.

Internists are frequently asked to do preoperative consultations and to manage perioperative complications. Realistic goals are to identify patient factors that increase the risk of surgery, to quantify this risk in order to make decisions about the appropriateness of and timing of the surgery, to provide recommendations on how to minimize the risk, to identify and manage coexisting medical conditions and their associated medication requirements, to monitor the patient for perioperative problems, and to make recommendations to deal with these problems when they occur. With few exceptions, nonselective imaging and laboratory screening tests have repeatedly been shown to be of little value when the history and physical do not suggest a problem. The risk associated with the planned surgery can be estimated, with the most common serious complications being cardiac events. Updated versions of Goldman's risk indices are particularly helpful for this. Clinical variables are optimally combined with selective stress testing to discern which patients will benefit from preoperative revascularization. This has been studied best in the setting of vascular surgery. A critical guiding principle is that the value of revascularization must be judged in terms of long term gains rather than just immediate perioperative benefit. Other interventions include the selective use of beta blockers, adequate analgesia for all, control of hypertension, and appropriate volume management, especially in the settings of preexisting CHF or valvular disease. It must also be recognized that perioperative ischemia and CHF often present atypically. An approach that combines aspects of both the ACC/AHA and the ACP guidelines seems optimal. A variety of noncardiac issues must also be addressed. Postoperative pulmonary complications are common, especially with preexisting pulmonary disease, thoracic and upper abdominal surgery, and obesity. PFTs and ABGs are indicated in selected patients. Stopping smoking, incentive spirometry, and selective use of bronchodilators and antibiotics are helpful. Patients with rheumatologic diseases have specific concerns based on systemic manifestations of disease including anemia, thrombocytopenia, pulmonary fibrosis, pericarditis, and hypercoagulability; medication effects particularly from steroids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; and specific joint problems including contractures and atlantoaxial joint instability. Diabetes increases the risk of infection and cardiac complications. Prevention of ketoacidosis and glucose control are necessary and can be achieved through a variety of approaches, depending on whether the patient suffers from Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes. The threshold for transfusion has increased in recent years, as has the use of erythropoietin and autologous blood donation. There is no longer an absolute hemoglobin that requires transfusion, although most require transfusion for hemoglobins less than 8 mg/dL, especially in the setting of cardiac disease and bloody surgery. The elderly require surgery at an increased rate and often do not do as well as younger patients. The primary issues are, however, not their age but their increased frequency of underlying disease and diminished reserve. The latter makes them prone to postoperative delirium, sensitivity to medications, and cardiac and pulmonary problems. Despite the many diseases that patients often have and the stresses of surgery itself, modern anesthetic and surgical techniques allow almost all patients to undergo necessary procedures at acceptable risk. The internist plays a critical role in minimizing this risk even further.     

Beta-blockers and statins are individually associated with reduced mortality in patients undergoing noncardiac, nonvascular surgery

BACKGROUND: Patients undergoing noncardiac, nonvascular surgery are at risk for perioperative mortality owing to underlying (a)symptomatic coronary artery disease. We hypothesized that beta-blocker and statin use are associated with reduced perioperative mortality. METHODS: We performed a case-control study in 75 581 patients who underwent 108 593 noncardiac, nonvascular surgery at the Erasmus Medical Center between 1991 and 2001. Cases were the 989 patients who died during hospital stay after surgery. From the remaining patients, 1879 matched controls (age, sex, calendar year and type of surgery) were selected. Information was then obtained regarding the use of beta-blockers and statins and the presence of cardiac risk factors. RESULTS: The median age of the study population was 63 years; 61% were men. beta-blockers were less often used in cases than in controls (6.2 vs. 8.2%; P=0.05), as were statins (2.4 vs. 5.5%; P<0.001). After adjustment for the propensity of beta-blocker use and cardiovascular risk factors, beta-blockers were associated with a 59% mortality reduction (odds ratio 0.41; 95% confidence interval 0.28-0.59). Statins were associated with a 60% mortality reduction (adjusted odds ratio 0.40; 95% confidence interval 0.24-0.68). A significant interaction between beta-blockers and statins was observed (P<0.001). In the presence of each other, statins and beta-blockers were not associated with reduced mortality (adjusted odds ratio 2.0 and 95% confidence interval 0.74-5.7 and adjusted odds ratio 1.3 and 95% confidence interval 0.52-3.2). It should be, however, noted that only nine cases and 29 controls used both agents simultaneously. CONCLUSION: This case-control study provides evidence that beta-blockers and statins are individually associated with a reduction of perioperative mortality in patients undergoing noncardiac, nonvascular surgery.