High and low lateral approaches to the popliteal artery

Summary Using a series of 20 dissections and two anatomic transverse sections of a lower limb, the authors investigated the lateral approaches to the popliteal artery. The high lateral approach (above the knee) is not very aggressive and gives access to the retro-genicular part of the popliteal artery. After cutaneous and fascial incision, a simple gap between the vastus lateralis and biceps femoris mm. allows easy exposure of the popliteal vessels after backward retraction of the sciatic nerve. The low lateral approach to the artery (below the knee) is very aggressive for the vessels, nerves, and ligaments of the area. It involves the resection of the upper fourth of the fibula and the isolation and protection of the common peroneal nerve Nevertheless, these lateral approaches must be known and used when classic approaches (medial and posteiror) are impossible.

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Voies d'abord latérales hautes et basses de l'artère poplitée

Résumé A partir d'une série de 20 dissections et de deux coupes horizontales d'un membre inférieur congelé, les auteurs ont réalisé une approache anatomique des voies d'abord latérales de l'artère poplitée. L'abord latéral haut de l'artère poplitée (au-dessus du genou) est peu traumatisant et permet d'atteindre la portion rétro-articulaire de l'artère poplitée. Après incision cutanée et fasciale, une simple discision entre les mm. vaste latéral et biceps fémoral permet une exposition aisée des vaisseaux poplités après écartement du n. sciatique en arrière. L'abord latéral bas de l'artère poplitée est très agressif sur les plans vasculaire, nerveux et ligamentaire. Il nécessite la résection du quart supérieur de la fibula en isolant et protégeant le n. fibulaire commun. Néanmoins, ces voies d'abord doivent être connues et utilisées en cas de contre-indication aux voies d'abord classiques (médiales et postérieures).

     

An inconstant ligament in the popliteal region associated to the superior genicular arteries: surgical importance

Materials and methods In the dissection of 60 knees of 30 cadavers (13 women and 17 men), a ligament was located in the posterior femur face above the lateral or medial condyle.Results This ligamentous structure was found in 12 (20%) out of 60 knees studied (38% of the women and 35% of the men). It had a vertical arrangement and a constant direct relation to the superior (lateral or medial) genicular artery, and in no case it appeared as a posterior reinforcement of the capsule. The superior vessels were fixed by this ligament.Discussion This fixation may provide stability to the vascular tree but it could be a cause of post-surgical hemarthrosis in arthroscopy of the posterior knee area or in posterior or lateral knee approaches or it could be even implicated in vascular injury of the popliteal artery during knee dislocation.Conclusion The objective was to describe this inconstant ligament and to study its clinical relevance for surgical procedures, and particularly for those using the posterior approach to the knee joint.     

带腓肠外侧皮神经及其营养血管筋膜皮瓣的应用解剖

目的 为带腓肠外侧皮神经及其营养血管筋膜皮瓣的临床应用提供解剖学基础.方法 在32例成人下肢标本上,对腓肠外侧皮神经及其营养血管进行解剖观测.结果 腓肠外侧皮神经在腓骨头平面上方 7.1±2.4cm处起于腓总神经,分布于小腿后外侧上半或上2/3的皮肤.其营养动脉主要为:腓肠外侧皮动脉:起自腘动脉,在腓骨头平面上方5.0±1.5cm处浅出,外径为0.9±0.3mm;肌间隔筋膜皮支:起自胫后动脉和腓动脉,分别在腓骨头平面下方9.2±3.8cm和15.8±3.8cm处浅出,外径为0.7±0.3mm和0.9±0.4mm.该营养动脉除在腓肠外侧皮神经周围或其内呈链式吻合外,还发出筋膜皮支与邻位的皮动脉连接.静脉血可沿伴行静脉或小隐静脉及其属支回流至深静脉.结论 以腓肠外侧皮神经及其营养血管为蒂,可设计成顺行或逆行转位筋膜皮瓣,修复邻近部位的软组织缺损.     

静脉蒂股骨外侧髁骨膜瓣修复膝关节软骨缺损的应用解剖

目的　为修复膝关节软骨缺损提供一个新的骨膜瓣供区。方法　在 5 0侧成人下肢标本上 ,解剖观察了膝上外侧血管的起始、行径、分支、分布及与周围血管的吻合 ;对另 3例进行了摹拟手术及静脉逆行灌注。结果　膝上外侧血管在股骨外侧髁上方 (2 5± 0 5 )cm处起自于血管 ,分出升支、横支、降支及浅支。横支、降支分布于股骨外侧髁。横支与膝降血管吻合 ,吻合率为 10 0 % (5 0侧 ) ;浅支与髌周血管环吻合 ,吻合率为 10 0 % (5 0侧 ) ;升支与旋股外侧血管降支吻合 ,吻合率为 92 %(4 6侧 )。上述血管束及分支均包含一条动脉、二条静脉。结论　在股骨外侧髁可以切取以膝上外侧血管横支、浅支或升支静脉为蒂的骨膜瓣 ,转移修复膝关节软骨缺损     

Evidence to support that adventitial cysts,analogous to intraneural ganglion cysts,are also joint‐connected

Cystic adventitial disease (CAD) is a rare condition in which cyst is found within a vessel, typically producing symptoms of vascular compromise. Most commonly located in the popliteal artery near the knee, it has been reported in arteries and veins throughout the body. Its pathogenesis has been poorly understood and various surgical approaches have been recommended. We extrapolated some recent information about a similar condition, intraneural ganglion cyst affecting the deep fibular (peroneal) nerve, to the prototype, CAD of the popliteal artery. In intraneural ganglion cysts affecting the deep fibular nerve we have shown that an articular (neural) branch is the conduit between the superior tibiofibular joint and the main parent nerve for which epineurial dissection of joint fluid can occur. We hypothesized that the same principles would apply to CAD and that an articular (vascular) branch would be the conduit from the knee joint leading to dissection to the main parent vessel. We reviewed five patients with CAD of the popliteal artery in whom MRIs were available: two treated by the primary author well familiar with the proposed articular theory, and three treated by others at our institution, less familiar with it. We then reviewed the literature critically to assess for additional evidence to support our articular (synovial) theory and an anatomic explanation. In the two cases treated by the primary author a joint connection was identified on high resolution MRI prospectively and intraoperatively through the middle genicular artery (MGA); postoperatively in these cases there was no recurrence. In the other three cases, a joint connection was not identified on imaging or at operation. Reinterpretation of these cases revealed a joint connection through the MGA in the one patient who had preoperative imaging and subclinical persistence/recurrence in the two patients who underwent postoperative MRIs done for other reasons. Our review of the literature and imaging studies revealed unrecognized joint connections in CAD to the knee and other joints as well as evidence that the MGA is the conduit in cases of CAD of the popliteal artery. We believe that adventitial cysts originate in neighboring joints and dissect within articular (vascular) branches. In our opinion, the unifying articular theory and the principles introduced for intraneural ganglion cysts apply equally to common and rare sites of adventitial cysts. Clin. Anat., 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Anatomic study of the superficial sural artery and its implication in the neurocutaneous vascularized sural nerve free flap

Combined extended nerve and soft tissue defects of the upper extremity require nerve reconstruction and adequate soft tissue coverage. This study focuses on the reliability of the free vascularized sural nerve graft combined with a fasciocutaneous posterior calf flap within this indication. An anatomical study was performed on 26 cadaveric lower extremities that had been Thiel fixated and color silicone injected. Dissection of the fasciocutaneous posterior calf flap involved the medial sural nerve and superficial sural artery (SSA) with its septocutaneous perforators, extended laterally to include the lateral cutaneous branch of the sural nerve and continued to the popliteal origin of the vascular pedicle and the nerves. The vessel and nerves diameter were measured with an eyepiece reticle at 4.5× magnification. Length and diameter of the nerves and vessels were carefully assessed and reported in the dissection book. A total of 26 flaps were dissected. The SSA originated from the medial sural artery (13 cases), the popliteal artery (12 cases), or the lateral sural artery (one case). The average size of the SSA was 1.4 ± 0.4 mm. The mean pedicle length before the artery joined the sural nerve was 4.5 ± 1.9 cm. A comitant vein was present in 21 cases with an average diameter of 2.0 ± 0.8 mm, in 5 cases a separate vein needed to be dissected with an average diameter of 3.5 ± 0.4 mm. The mean medial vascularized sural nerve length was 21.2 ± 8.9 cm. Because of inclusion of the vascularized part of the lateral branch of the sural nerve (mean length of 16.7 ± 4.8 cm), a total of 35.0 ± 9.6 cm mean length of vascularized nerve could be gained from each extremity. The free vascularized sural nerve graft combined with a fasciocutaneous posterior calf flap pedicled on the SSA offers a reliable solution for complex tissue and nerve defect. Clin. Anat. 26:903–910, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

后踝上皮瓣血供的解剖观察及临床应用

目的 探讨后踝上皮瓣的解剖特点,总结后踝上皮瓣治疗足踝部软组织缺损的临床经验,为后踝上皮瓣的临床应用提供依据。方法 2012年8—10月收集8侧新鲜成人下肢标本,股动脉灌注红色乳胶,解剖观察胫后动脉在小腿下段内侧的皮穿支及其营养腓肠神经、腓肠外侧皮神经的情况;观察腘窝外侧皮动脉穿出部位、走行、分布及与胫后动脉踝上穿支吻合情况,测量腘窝外侧皮动脉长度及直径。回顾性分析2007年2月—2012年6月兰州军区兰州总医院全军创伤骨科中心采用后踝上皮瓣移植修复的15例足踝部软组织缺损患者的临床资料,其中男11例,女4例;年龄18～49 岁,平均33岁;创面位于小腿下1/3段3例,足踝部7例,足底负重区5例。15例患者均采用后踝上皮瓣移植修复;术后观察患者皮瓣成活情况,创面完全愈合后1个月,有骨折者骨折临床愈合后3个月采用美国矫形足踝协会(AOFAS)评分系统评定踝关节功能。结果 8侧下肢标本观察示,胫后动脉在小腿下段发出2～4支肌间隙皮动脉,均有分支向外上方走行,供应腓肠神经及腓肠外侧皮神经,并与腘窝外侧皮动脉间有确定的吻合支;均见腘窝外侧皮动脉,起于股骨内外髁连线上方(1.8±0.47)cm处,于腘窝后正中线外侧(1.1±0.14)cm处穿出深筋膜并沿腓肠肌外侧头表面下行;腘窝外侧皮动脉均与腓肠外侧皮神经伴行,腘窝外侧皮动脉全长(14.21±3.89)cm、直径(1.23±0.24)mm。临床应用后踝上皮瓣移植修复足踝部软组织缺损15例,移植皮瓣全部成活13例,2例远端部分坏死。12例患者获随访6～18个月,平均11个月。患者皮瓣质地及外观良好,术后踝关节功能优8例,良4例。结论 后踝上皮瓣血管蒂位置相对隐蔽,外伤后不易损伤,且修复范围大,成活率高,是治疗足踝部软组织大面积缺损的一种较好的选择。     

Posterior approach for simultaneous access to the popliteal and anterior tibial arteries applications to distal arterial bypass

Abstract Arterial surgery to salvage the lower limb tends to make use of the great saphenous vein, harvested with the subject in the supine position. If this is not possible the small saphenous vein is used, harvested with the subject in the prone position, however this requires a peroperative modification of the procedure. A bypass between the popliteal and anterior tibial arteries can be performed using either a lateral or a medial and lateral approach with the patient supine. In the event of trophic disorders of the lateral compartment of the leg, these approaches are not applicable. In such cases we propose a single posterior approach. The single posterior approach was used on 10 lower limbs from 5 cadavers in the prone position. Approach to the lower part of the popliteal artery was undertaken posteriorly between the two heads of gastrocnemius. The small saphenous vein was entirely dissected 10cm above the lateral malleolus, the Achilles tendon and short fibular vessels were retracted medially to expose the interosseous fascia, which was divided over 10 cm. Medial rotation of the limb by 30° exposed the anterior tibial artery. For 3 of the lower limbs an 8 cm fibular resection was necessary, whereas on the remaining 7 medial rotation enabled excellent exposure of the anterior tibial artery. The single posterior approach to the anterior tibial artery can be applied in cases requiring distal bypass, using the small saphenous vein, between the inferior part of the popliteal artery and the anterior tibial artery.     

半膜肌腘窝穿支皮瓣的解剖学基础

目的　探讨半膜肌腘窝穿支的解剖学特征,为临床膝周软组织缺损的修复提供形态学依据。 方法　在30侧动脉内灌注红色乳胶的成人下肢标本上,通过显微解剖、摹拟手术等方法,重点观测： ①半膜肌营养血管的起源、走行、分支与分布; ②半膜肌腘窝穿支与邻近穿支的吻合特点。 结果　半膜肌腘窝穿支于胫骨髁上13.5 cm由半膜肌肌支发出,穿过深筋膜至皮下,并分出众多的细小血管与腘动脉直接皮支、腘窝内侧皮动脉吻合。外径和长度分别为（0.7±0.3） mm、（1.1±0.4） cm。 结论　以半膜肌腘窝穿支为蒂设计皮瓣,可转位或V-Y推进修复膝周软组织缺损。     

Similarities and dissimilarities of the blood supplies of the human sciatic,tibial, and common peroneal nerves

The aim was to investigate the arterial supply of the sciatic, tibial, and common peroneal nerves. Thirty‐six lower limbs of 18 human fetuses were studied. The fetuses had been fixed in buffered formalin and the blood vessels injected with barium sulfate. Fetal age ranged from 12 to 28 weeks of gestation. Microdissection of the fetal lower extremities was done under ×5 magnifying lenses. The sciatic nerves of 10 lower extremities were dissected and excised and radiographs taken. The extraneural arterial chain of the sciatic nerve was composed of 2–6 arterial branches of the inferior gluteal artery, the medial circumflex femoral artery, the perforating arteries, and the popliteal artery. The extraneural arterial chain of tibial nerve was composed of 2–5 arteries, which were branches of the popliteal, the peroneal, and the posterior tibial arteries. Radiographs showed the presence of complete intraneural arterial chains in the sciatic and tibial nerves, formed from anastomosing vessels. Dissection showed that, in 97.2% of the specimens, the common peroneal nerve was supplied only by one popliteal artery branch, the presence of which was confirmed radiologically. The sciatic and tibial nerves are supplied by numerous arterial branches of different origins, which provide for collateral circulation. In contrast, the common peroneal nerve is most frequently supplied only by one elongated longitudinal blood vessel, a branch of the popliteal artery. Such a vascular arrangement may make the common peroneal nerve less resistant to stretching and compression. Clin. Anat. 26:875–882, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The popliteal region an anatomical study and a new approach to the tibial attachment of the posterior cruciate ligament

Surgical treatment of posterior cruciate ligament injuries is gaining more and more importance. The central posterior approach according to Abbott (1945) has been considered a standard, with various complications involved owing to the local anatomic conditions. This study is intended to present a modified dorsomedial approach to the posterior capsule of the knee joint that is better adapted to the anatomic conditions. As a basis, the popliteal region was dissected in 150 knee joints, and the course of the popliteal artery with its branches as well as the bifurcation of the sciatic nerve were identified. The medial joint line served as a reference point. It has been shown that the knee joint arteries and the two sural arteries arose at relatively constant levels. At least one of the meniscofemoral ligaments was found in all of the knee joints examined the anterior ligament was present in a slightly higher percentage than the posterior ligament. The modified dorsomedial approach to the posterior joint capsule was evaluated in 50 knee joints. Dissection was achieved by blunt division of the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle, with careful preservation of the proximal vascular supply of that muscle. It was necessary to expose neither the popliteal artery and vein nor the tibial nerve. The tibial attachment of the posterior cruciate ligament could be exposed in every knee. The advantage of the new approach to the posterior cruciate ligament described in this study consists in the preservation of the central neurovascular bundle and the excellent exposure of the tibial attachment.     

Deep flexion helps to avoid popliteal artery injury during all-inside lateral meniscal repair: A cadaveric study

BackgroundArthroscopic meniscus repair rarely leads to major complications such as popliteal artery injury. The distance between the suturing device and the popliteal artery, and the risk of popliteal artery injury at different knee flexion angles during all-inside lateral meniscal repair remain unclear.MethodsAll-inside devices were inserted into 10 human cadaveric knees at the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus through the anterolateral portal at 60°, 90°, and 120° knee flexion; posterior segment of the lateral meniscus through the anterolateral portal at 60°, 90°, and 120°; and anteromedial portal at 90°. Distance and positional relationship between the device and popliteal artery were measured radiographically.ResultsIn posterior horn repair through the anterolateral portal, the median distance increased from 5.7 mm at 60° to 9.1 mm at 90° (P = 0.63) and 18.0 mm at 120° (P = 0.02). The device pushed the wire at 60° in three cases, 90° in one case, and 120° in 0 cases. In posterior segment repair through the anterolateral portal, the median distance was 12.6 mm at 60°, 10.4 mm at 90°, and 18.3 mm at 120° (P = 0.08). The median distance at 90° was 18.1 mm through the anteromedial portal, the same as that at 120° through the anterolateral portal (P = 0.43), but greater than that at 90° through the anterolateral portal (P = 0.04). The wire was not pushed in any case.ConclusionAlthough all-inside repair of the posterior part of the lateral meniscus through the anterolateral portal is risky, deeper knee flexion reduces the risk of popliteal artery injury.     

胫骨近端骨折“T”入路术式的解剖学研究

目的为胫骨近端骨折"T"入路术式提供解剖学基础。方法 (1)灌注红色乳胶于4例成人下肢标本,对胫骨上段的血供和神经的分布进行研究,另在4例标本上摹拟手术。结果 (1)胫骨上段血供由骨骺干骺血管、滋养血管和骨膜血管系统构成;小腿上段神经由隐神经髌下支和胫前返神经分支分布;(2)"T"入路术式仅见膝降动脉的髌下支断裂,未见明显的神经分支,各层组织均有大量红色塑料溢出,切口均能充分暴露胫骨近端及关节面。结论 (1)胫骨上段和切口周围血供丰富;(2")T"入路术式对胫骨近段血运和神经无影响,且骨折端暴露充分、直视下手术操作安全方便。     

An abnormal muscle in the superficial region of the popliteal fossa

An abnormal muscle was observed in the superficial region of the popliteal fossa during a dissection procedure conducted for medical students. This abnormal muscle originated from the biceps femoris tendon and inserted into the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle. The innervating nerve branched from the lateral sural cutaneous nerve. The distributing artery arose from a branch of the sural artery. This abnormal muscle mostly comprised one sheet of muscle mass (not tendon type) and ran transversely.     

Popliteal vascular entrapment syndrome caused by variant lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle leading to pulmonary artery embolism

A young man with popliteal vascular entrapment syndrome (PVES) presented with arterial occlusion, deep venous thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary artery embolism, and pulmonary hypertension. He received computer tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Both CT and MRI showed that the left thrombosed popliteal vein and artery were entrapped by a variant lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle. The anomalous slip originated from the lateral head of left gastrocnemius muscle and ended between the medial and lateral femoral condyles. PVES Type V was diagnosed. Compression of the popliteal vein without arterial compression can be explained by the more lateral location of the popliteal vein relative to the artery and its proximity to the lateral head of the gastrocnemius. Compression of the popliteal vein with arterial compression was found in this patient. Compression of popliteal vein and artery in this patient led to DVT and arterial occlusion. The case was the first reported case accompanied by popliteal vein and artery thrombosis caused by variant lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle. Radiologists and doctors should continue to look for possible abnormalities in the popliteal fossa in young patients with peripheral vascular disease because early diagnosis of PVES allows better choices and outcomes of treatment. Clin. Anat. 25:986–988, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Spontaneous resolution of superior medial geniculate artery pseudoaneurysm following total knee arthroplasty

Vascular injury after total knee arthroplasty is a rare event with significant morbidity. To date there are a handful of cases of pseudoaneurysms affecting the popliteal artery and cases involving one of the geniculate arteries are even rarer.Most case reports involving injuries to the geniculate vessels have reported surgical intervention to treat the condition. We report a case where injury to the superior medial geniculate artery with formation of pseudoaneurysm resolved without any surgical intervention.     

膝关节脱位的早期诊断及微创治疗方法

目的　探讨膝关节脱位的早期诊断及微创治疗。 方法　回顾性分析2011年7月~2015年10月收治的90例创伤性膝关节脱位患者,一期行关节镜下韧带重建术,关节囊不予修复,腘动脉损伤修复后推迟3周进行韧带重建,若小腿肌肉已坏死,则取胫骨前肌肌腱或跟腱进行韧带重建,神经行探查、松解或缝合术,Lysholm膝关节评分来评价手术前、后膝关节功能。 结果　本组90例患者中,78例获得随访,平均随访时间为18个月（9~24个月）。末次随访膝关节功能Lysholm评分为78~91分,平均85.6分。前后抽屉试验I°阳性各75例,Lachman试验I°阳性75例,内外翻试验均阴性,3例腘动脉损伤导致小腿肌肉坏死者术后出现Ⅱ°松弛1例,Ⅲ°松弛2例。 结论　物理与影像学检查对判断创伤性膝关节脱位有积极意义,单纯一期膝关节多发韧带损伤重建的方法可行,近期疗效满意。     

Loss of Distal Femur Combined with Popliteal Artery Occlusion: Reconstructive Arthroplasty Using Modular Segmental Endoprosthesis: A Case Report

Severe injury to the knee and the surrounding area is frequently associated with injury to ligaments of the knee joint and structures in the popliteal fossa. This case involved a popliteal artery occlusion, severe bone loss of distal femur, loss of collateral ligaments, and extensor mechanism destruction of the knee. Initially, prompt recognition and correction of associated popliteal artery injury are important for good results after treatment. After successful revascularization, treatment for severe bone loss of distal femur and injury of the knee joint must be followed. We treated this case by delayed reconstruction using modular segmental endoprosthesis after revascularization of the popliteal artery. This allowed early ambulation. At 36 months after surgery, the patient had good circulation of the lower limb and was ambulating independently.     

Influence of a fabella in the gastrocnemius muscle on the common fibular nerve in Japanese subjects

The fabella is a sesamoid bone located in the proximal tendon of the gastrocnemius muscle. In rare cases, its presence may lead to a variety of clinical problems, including fabella syndrome and common fibular (CF) nerve palsy. The purpose of this study was to analyze the morphology of the fabella and CF nerve and discuss the influence of any existing fabellae on the size of the CF nerve. The morphology of the fabella and CF nerve in the popliteal region of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle was investigated in 102 knees of 51 Japanese cadavers. The maximum circumference of the thigh, knee, and calf and the frequency, position, and size of the fabella were measured. In addition, the CF nerve width and thickness were measured proximal to the fabellar region and again as the CF nerve passed posterior, lateral, or medial to the region. A fabella was observed in 70 knees (68.6%). The CF nerve adjacent to the fabella was significantly wider and thinner than in the region proximal to the fabella (P < 0.001). In cases in which a bony fabella was present, there was a significant relationship between the thickness of the CF nerve and the circumference of the thigh and knee. The following factors were observed to contribute to the presence of a fabella causing alterations in the size of the CF nerve: a bony fabella, a CF nerve path posterior or lateral to the fabella, and subjects with a thin physique and bony fabella. Clin. Anat. 26:893–902, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.