The use of insulin in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

Introduction: Older patients with diabetes sometimes present comorbidities that increase the risk of other common geriatric syndromes. In such patients, treatment with insulin is usually started when full doses of oral hypoglycemic agents are no longer adequate to achieve acceptable glycemic control.

Areas covered: This article reviews the available literature on the use of insulin in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes. The aims are to gain information on: the benefits and risks of initiating insulin treatment, the efficacy and safety of different types of insulin and the most appropriate initial dosing and titration regimens. Thirteen published trials have evaluated the effects of different insulin regimens in the management of elderly subjects with type 2 diabetes but, given that older people are generally excluded in clinical studies with insulin, only three published reports on subgroup analyses are limited to elderly patients.

Expert opinion: The available literature shows that the addition of insulin to current oral treatments is generally safe and effective in improving metabolic control, with a low risk for hypoglycemia. Further research is needed to better understand the most appropriate insulin regimens necessary to achieve glycemic goals while appropriately addressing the risk of hypoglycemia.     

苯那普利对2型糖尿病患者胰岛素抵抗的作用

目的：研究苯那普利对2型糖尿病患者胰岛素抵抗的作用。方法：应用苯那普利对28例不伴有高血压的2型糖尿病患者进行5个月的治疗,在治疗前后分别进行口服葡萄糖耐量试验及胰岛素释放试验,测定其血糖、胰岛素及其曲线下的面积、胰岛素敏感性指数、血压及肾功能,并作比较。结果：该组患者苯那普利治疗后较治疗前血糖、胰岛素及其曲线下面积均显著降低（P＜0．05）,胰岛素敏感性指数升高（P＜0．05）。结论：苯那普利具有升高2型糖尿病患者胰岛素敏感性指数、改善胰岛 素抵抗及糖代谢的作用。     

甘精胰岛素联合门冬胰岛素治疗2型糖尿病的临床评价

目的 评价甘精胰岛素联合门冬胰岛素治疗对2型糖尿病患者的血糖控制效果。方法 选取上海市长宁区天山中医医院内分泌科2013年1月-2016年1月治疗的2型糖尿病患者150例,随机分为两组（n=75）。其中对照组75例采用精蛋白生物合成人胰岛素注射液联合三餐门冬胰岛素治疗;试验组75例采用甘精胰岛素联合三餐门冬胰岛素治疗,均用药6个月。比较两组治疗前后空腹血糖、餐后2 h血糖和糖化血红蛋白（HbA1c）水平、两组生存质量和不良反应情况。结果 治疗6个月时,对照组和试验组患者的空腹血糖、餐后2 h血糖和HbA1c水平均较同组治疗前降低（P<0.05）,且试验组的空腹血糖和HbA1c水平均低于对照组的（P<0.05）,试验组生存质量明显优于对照组（P<0.05）;治疗3个月时,试验组的HbA1c水平低于对照组的,差异均有统计学意义（P<0.05）。试验组轻微低血糖、夜间低血糖和心脑血管发生率明显低于对照组（P<0.05）。结论 甘精胰岛素联合门冬胰岛素治疗对2型糖尿病患者的血糖控制效果显著,可长时间将血糖稳定在正常水平,患者不良反应发生率低、生存质量高。     

胰岛素泵诺和锐治疗2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗的临床观察

目的:比较基因重组人胰岛素与人胰岛素类似物以胰岛素泵为输入载体时对于2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗的疗效.方法:34例2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗的患者随机分为两组:诺和锐治疗组及诺和灵对照组各17例,均为使用胰岛素强化治疗血糖控制不佳的胰岛素抵抗患者.根据毛细血糖监测结果调整胰岛素用量,比较两组血糖达标后每日药量及达标所需时间.结果:治疗组达标后每日药量及达标所需时间均显著少于对照组.结论:胰岛素泵诺和锐治疗2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗的疗效明显优于胰岛素泵诺和灵.     

阿卡波糖对2型糖尿病病人胰岛素抵抗的影响

目的 :探讨阿卡波糖对 2型糖尿病病人胰岛素抵抗的影响。方法 :16 0例 2型糖尿病病人随机分为 2组 ,治疗组 80例口服阿卡波糖治疗 ,前 2wk ,5 0mg ,po ,tid ,2wk后 ,10 0mg ,po ,tid ;安慰剂组 80例口服安慰剂 ,方法同治疗组 ,疗程为 2 4wk。同时观察空腹及餐后 2h血糖、血清胰岛素水平、体重指数、糖化血红蛋白、空腹时的红细胞胰岛素受体和红细胞膜流动性治疗前后变化。结果 :(1)wk 4时 ,阿卡波糖明显降低病人的空腹血糖、餐后 2h血糖、糖化血红蛋白 ,下降值分别为 :(2 .9±s 0 .8)mmol·L- 1,(4.0± 1.8)mmol·L- 1,(1.2± 2 .1) % ,P<0 .0 1;(2 ) 2 4wk后 ,阿卡波糖降低病人的体重、空腹血清胰岛素、餐后 2h血清胰岛素 ,下降值分别为 :(6± 4 )kg·m- 2 ,(10± 6 )MIU·L- 1,(14± 10 )MIU·L- 1,增加红细胞胰岛素受体 ,升高值为 :(80± 71)sites·RBC- 1,降低膜流动性 ,下降值为 :(1.5± 1.3) ,P <0 .0 1。结论 :阿卡波糖能改善 2型糖尿病病人的胰岛素抵抗     

2型糖尿病患者如何选择中预混和低预混胰岛素类似物

糖尿病已成为严重威胁健康的主要慢性疾病之一。中国糖尿病患者数居全球首位,目前2型糖尿病（T2DM）患者呈现出以餐后血糖升高为主,胰岛素敏感性降低和胰岛β细胞功能减退的特点。预混胰岛素类似物根据自身的特点分为中预混和低预混胰岛素,且应用灵活方便,低血糖风险低,更加安全,为2型糖尿病患者带来了新的选择和希望。     

血清脂联素水平与2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗的关系

目的阐明脂联素与2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗的相关性。方法2型糖尿病患者66例,根据1999年WHO诊断标准确诊,同期正常人30例年龄、性别与糖尿病足匹配。测定所有观察对象的空腹血清脂联素,体质指数、血糖、胰岛素、胰岛素抵抗指数及尿白蛋白排泄率等相关指标。用稳态模式胰岛素抵抗指数(Homa-IR)评估胰岛素抵抗。结果2型糖尿病组血清脂联素水平均低于正常对照组。Homa-IR2型糖尿病组高于正常对照组(P<0.05),脂联素水平超重肥胖者低于非肥胖者(P<0.01);相同WHR间脂联素水平2型糖尿病者较正常人低。脂联素与WHR、Homa-IR独立负相关(P<0.01)。结论血清脂联素与糖尿病、胰岛素抵抗之间存在着密切的相关性,在2型糖尿病的发生发展中发挥重要作用。     

中效胰岛素联合那格列奈与预混胰岛素治疗2型糖尿病疗效比较

目的:预混胰岛素血糖控制不佳者改用那格列奈联合中效人胰岛素(NPH)在2型糖尿病患者中的有效性及安全性。方法:选择应用预混人胰岛素3月及以上血糖控制不佳的2型糖尿病患者108例,分为2组,一组(42例)维持原方案的基础上调整预混胰岛素用量,另一组(66例)改用那格列奈联合中效人胰岛素治疗,随访3月及6月,比较治疗前后两组空腹血糖(FBG),餐后2 h血糖(2hPBS),糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)及低血糖发生率,体重变化情况。结果:那格列奈联合中效人胰岛素与预混胰岛素治疗3月和1年时比较,FBG、2hPBS及HbA1c较治疗前均明显下降;同时低血糖发生率减少;体重及体重指数3月后无明显变化但1年后有所降低。结论:2型糖尿病患者应用那格列奈联合中效胰岛素能更好控制血糖;同时减少低血糖的发生率,不增加体重,兼顾了治疗的有效性及安全性,疗效优于预混胰岛素。     

胰岛素泵强化治疗对新诊断2型糖尿病的疗效观察

目的观察短期胰岛素泵强化治疗对新诊断2型糖尿病患者血糖达标时间及3个月后复查糖基化血红蛋白的控制情况,从而改变糖尿病的临床进程。方法66例新诊断2型糖尿病患者随机分成两组,治疗组34例,给予2周时间胰岛素强化治疗后,改口服降糖药治疗;对照组32例给予直接口服药治疗,分别观察2组患者血糖达标时间及3个月后糖基化血红蛋白的控制情况。结果治疗组血糖达标达标时间为（2．5±0．8）d,对照组血糖达标时间为（7．5±1．6）d,2组数据比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0．01）。3个月后糖基化血红蛋白情况,治疗组为（5．4±1．5）％,对照组为（6．3±1．8）％,2组数据对照差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。结论新诊断2型糖尿病患者,经短期胰岛素泵强化治疗,能缩短血糖达标时间并维持长时间血糖的良好控制。     

Budget impact of treating commercially insured type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients in the United States with insulin degludec compared to insulin glargine

Objective: To quantify the annual budget impact if all US commercially insured type 1 diabetes mellitus patients on basal–bolus therapy (T1DM_BBT), type 2 diabetes mellitus patients on basal–oral therapy (T2DM_BOT), and type 2 diabetes mellitus patients on basal–bolus therapy (T2DM_BBT) switched from insulin glargine (IGlar) to insulin degludec (IDeg).

Methods: A short-term (1 year) budget impact model was developed to evaluate the costs of IDeg vs. IGlar in three treatment groups (T1DM_BBT, insulin-naïve T2DM_BOT, and T2DM_BBT) through a simulation for a potential US health plan population of 35 million. The analysis captured direct medical costs associated with insulin treatment (insulin, needles, and self-monitored glucose testing) and costs related to managing hypoglycemic episodes. There were a total of 59,780 T1DM_BBT patients, 383,145 T2DM_BOT patients, and 171,325 T2DM_BBT patients expected to be using long-acting insulin. A sensitivity analysis on the entire US population was also conducted.

Results: Among T1DM_BBT patients, IDeg was associated with an annual cost savings of ?$357.13 per patient per year (PPPY), driven primarily by reduced insulin utilization. IDeg was also found to be cost saving among T2DM_BOT patients (?$1206.61 PPPY), driven primarily by reductions in the cost of treating severe hypoglycemic episodes. Among T2DM_BBT patients, IDeg was associated with an additional cost to the plan of $1420.04 PPPY; however, this result was driven by a higher insulin dose for IDeg compared to IGlar. Overall, IDeg demonstrated cost savings of $240 million per year, which accounted for total cost savings of 3.5% vs. IGlar.

Conclusions: The results of this analysis suggest that the reduced insulin utilization and fewer hypoglycemic episodes associated with IDeg may translate into reduced costs for payers. The model is limited by simplification of a complex disease state and assumptions surrounding disease state, treatment patterns, and costs. Therefore, results may not accurately reflect actual health plans or real-world practice patterns.     

胰岛素强化治疗在2型糖尿病患者中的疗效分析

目的探讨胰岛素强化治疗在2型糖尿病患者中的临床效果。方法将我院收治的60例2型糖尿病患者,随机分为强化组1和强化组2,组1给予门冬胰岛素30治疗,组2给予门冬胰岛素联合甘精胰岛素治疗,比较两组血糖控制情况及不良反应发生情况。结果组1、组2治疗前后FPG、2hPG差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。组2与组1治疗前、后FPG、2hPG差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。组2血糖达标时间低于组1,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。组2胰岛素用量低于组1,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论 2型糖尿病患者用门冬胰岛素联合甘精胰岛素强化治疗与用门冬胰岛素30治疗相比,有效性相似,血糖达标快,胰岛素用量少,值得临床推广应用。     

The relationships between dose and concentration of tolbutamide and insulin and glucose responses in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes

Summary It is uncertain how the hypoglycaemic effect of sulphonylureas varies with drug concentration in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The interrelationship of tolbutamide dosage and concentration, and glucose and insulin concentrations were therefore examined in 54 out-patients (the observational group) and in 20 patients studied under controlled conditions (the experimental group).In the observational group, tolbutamide concentration depended significantly on the daily dose, time from dose to sampling, body weight, and age. Blood glucose and insulin concentration were related, but were independent of tolbutamide concentration.In the experimental group, peak, but not pre-dose, tolbutamide concentration, depended on dose and on body mass index. Fasting and maximum post-prandial blood glucose concentration were positively correlated with maximum tolbutamide concentration, probably because tolbutamide dosage was highest in those with the poorest response.In the subset with a fasting blood glucose concentration of less than 8 mmol·l^–1, neither glucose nor insulin concentrations depended significantly on tolbutamide concentrations. Tolbutamide concentration does not directly determine hypoglycaemic response in outpatients, and therapeutic monitoring of drug concentrations would not improve the management of such patients.     

三种胰岛素强化方案治疗2型糖尿病疗效和安全性观察

目的比较三种不同胰岛素强化治疗方案对2型糖尿病（T2DM）疗效及安全性。方法将66例T2DM患者随机分为三组：门冬胰岛素30组（n=22）、短效人胰岛素＋甘精胰岛素组（MDI）（n=21）和短效人胰岛素持续皮下输注组（CSII）（n=23）。观察三组治疗前后血糖的变化、血糖达标时间、胰岛素用量、低血糖发生率。结果三组方案治疗后血糖下降均有显著差异（P〈0.01）,门冬胰岛素30组胰岛素用量较MDI组无显著差异（P＆gt;0.05）,较CSII组显著增加（P〈0.05）,CSII组与MDI组胰岛素用量无显著差异（P〉0.05）;三组间血糖控制及达标时间、低血糖发生率均无显著差异（P〈0.05）。结论门冬胰岛素30组疗效及安全性较胰岛素泵或一天4次胰岛素皮下注射相当,且操作简单,依从性好,适合在基层医院推广。     

胰岛素泵在2型糖尿病强化治疗中的临床研究

目的观察胰岛素泵和传统胰岛素皮下注射2种方法对2型糖尿病患者短期强化治疗中的血糖控制及胰岛素用量情况。方法32例2型糖尿病患者随机分成胰岛素泵（CSH）组和多次胰岛素注射（MDII）组,比较2组治疗前后空腹及餐后2h血糖、胰岛素用量、血糖达标时间及低血糖反应。结果CSII组和MDII组空腹及餐后2h血糖逐渐降低（P〉0．05）,但CSII组胰岛素用量少,达标时间短,且低血糖发生率低（P〈0．01）。结论胰岛素泵是2型糖尿病短期强化控制血糖的安全有效、简便可靠的手段。     

新发2型糖尿病患者早期胰岛素强化治疗临床疗效分析

目的：评价新发2型糖尿病患者早期胰岛素强化治疗的效果。方法：对28例新发2型糖尿病患进行早期胰岛素强化治疗。结果：空腹血糖（FPG）、餐后2h血糖（2hPG）、糖化血红蛋白（HbAlc）水平均显著下降（P〈0．01）,而空腹C肽水平增高（P〈0．05）,餐后2hC肽水SF（2hCP）明显升高（P〈0．01）。结论：早期胰岛素强化治疗能尽快解除高糖毒性,胰岛B细胞功能显著恢复,减轻糖毒性。     

腹腔内脏脂肪面积与2型糖尿病及血清胰岛素的相关研究

目的观察腹腔内脏脂肪面积(VA)与2型糖尿病及血清胰岛素的关系。方法 2型糖尿病患者273例,非糖尿病者122例,分为高脂肪组198例和低脂肪组197例。检测空腹血糖(FPG)、空腹胰岛素(FINS)、糖化血红蛋白(Hb A1C)、尿酸(UA)、游离脂肪酸(FFA)、血脂系列等相关指标,采用CT测定VA,计算胰岛素抵抗指数(HOMA-IR)、体质指数(BMI)。结果糖尿病组的VA显著高于非糖尿病组(P<0.05),高脂肪组的腰围、BMI、UA、FINS、TG、IR、FFA、舒张压、收缩压明显高于低脂肪组(P<0.05),HDL明显低于低脂肪组(P<0.05)。腰围、BMI、FINS、UA、IR、TG、舒张压、收缩压、FFA与腹腔内脏脂肪面积呈正相关(r=0.697、0.625、0.374、0.371、0.332、0.317、0.181、0.136、0.110,均P<0.05),HDL与VA呈负相关(r=-0.230,P<0.05)。腰围、FINS、UA为VA的独立危险因素(b=6.657、2.819、2.405,均P<0.05)。结论内脏脂肪增加伴有胰岛素水平增高,胰岛素抵抗加重,糖尿病风险增加,并出现血压、尿酸、脂肪酸、胰岛素等多项代谢指标的异常。     

Biphasic insulin aspart in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus

Background: Initiating and implementing insulin treatment in type 2 diabetic subjects is a major challenge in diabetes clinical practice. Although simple regimens, such as the combination of a once-daily basal insulin + oral agents, are widely used, they often are not able to achieve an adequate glycemic control, especially in the postprandial period. Biphasic insulin analogues are a valid tool to start and to improve insulin treatment in type 2 diabetes. Biphasic insulin aspart (BIAsp) is available in three different mixtures (30, 50 and 70% of rapid-acting insulin, respectively), which allows insulin treatment to be individualized. Objective/methods: To review recent published papers concerning pharmacological properties and clinical use of BIAsp in type 2 diabetes. Results/conclusion: BIAsp seems to have some advantages over biphasic human insulins, especially for its practical pre- or post-meal administration and lesser hypoglycemic risk. Against basal insulins once daily, BIAsp twice daily seems to perform better in achieving the glucose targets and, even when compared with the more complex basal-bolus regimens, a BIAsp-based treatment using the different available mixtures is at least non-inferior. Side effects are no more frequent than with other insulins; more hypoglycemic episodes of low severity have been sometimes reported, but only in comparison with basal insulin.     

门冬胰岛素30联合西格列汀治疗老年2型糖尿病的临床观察

目的观察门冬胰岛素30注射液与西格列汀联合治疗老年2型糖尿病的疗效及安全性。方法选择血糖控制不佳的老年2型糖尿病患者96例,采用隐匿数字随机法均分为2组,对照组给予门冬胰岛素30注射液治疗,观察组给予门冬胰岛素30注射液与西格列汀联合治疗,采用生化血糖和动态血糖监测,比较2组血糖控制效果及波动范围;治疗前后对肝肾功能相关指标进行检测,并记录治疗过程中患者的不良反应和低血糖发生次数。结果治疗3个月后,2组FPG、2hPBG、HbAlc值均较治疗前明显下降(P<0.05);观察组各指标下降幅度略大于对照组(P>0.05)。观察组胰岛素平均用量为0.55±0.14u·kg·d~(-1),明显少于对照组(P<0.05)。观察组治疗3个月后各时间段C肽水平较治疗前明显提高,与治疗前对照组比较,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。观察组低血糖发生率为8.33%,对照组低血糖发生率为27.08%(P<0.05)。结论门冬胰岛素30注射液与西格列汀联合可减少胰岛素用量,提高老年2型糖尿病患者血糖控制的平稳性,降低其低血糖发生率。     

甘精胰岛素联合阿卡波糖治疗2型糖尿病疗效观察

目的 探讨甘精胰岛素联合阿卡波糖治疗2型糖尿病临床疗效.方法 选择确诊为2型糖尿病患者80例,随机分为对照组和治疗组,对照组38例,采用预混胰岛素(诺和灵30R)治疗,治疗组42例,采用甘精胰岛素联合阿卡波糖治疗,治疗12周,观察空腹血糖(FBG)、餐后2h血糖(2 hBG)、糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)、体重指数(BMI)、血糖达标时间、低血糖事件发生率、胰岛素每天用量等指标.结果 2组经过12周治疗后,FBG、2 hBG、HbA1c指标均较治疗前有显著改善(P＜0.05),FBG、2 hBG、HbA1c各指标组间比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);BMI指标治疗前后比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);2组患者血糖达标时间比较,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);2组患者胰岛素每天用量、低血糖发生率比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 甘精胰岛素联合阿卡波糖治疗2型糖尿病可显著改善血糖,降低血糖发生率低,且可减少胰岛素用量,临床效果显著,值得推广和借鉴.