The role of vitamin D metabolites in bone resorption

Two metabolites of vitamin D₃, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OHD₃) and 1,25-dihydroxy-cholecalciferol (1,25-(OH)₂D₃) are potent stimulators of bone resorption in two test systems whereas vitamin D₃ itself is inactive. These substances were tested (a) by directly comparing their action on bone explants of mouse half-calvariain vitro, and (b) by injecting them into young mice and measuring the degree of resorptionin vitro when explants were made 18 hours atter the injection. In both tests the 1,25-metabolite was about 100 times more potent than 25-OHD₃. The dose-response curve for 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ indicates that doses above about 0.2 ng/g body weight are capable of inducing an increase in bone resorption in normal young mice. These data show that 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ is one of the most potent substances known that affects bone metabolism. The results are discussed in relation to the possible role of 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ in the normal mobilization of calcium from bone.

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Zusammenfassung Bei Anwendung zweier verschiedener Versuchsanordnungen konnte gezeigt werden, daß die beiden Vitamin D₃-Metaboliten 25-Hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OHD₃) und 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25-(OH)₂D₃) als starke Stimulatoren der Knochenresorption wirken, während sich Vitamin D₃ selbst inaktiv verhält. Diese Substanzen wurden folgendermaßen geprüft: a) durch direkten Vergleich ihrer Wirkung auf Knochenexplantate (Hälften von Mäusecalvarien)in vitro und b) indem die Metaboliten jungen Mäusen injiziert wurden und der Resorptionsgrad an Explantaten 18 Std nach Injektionin vitro gemessen wurde. Bei beiden Versuchsanordnungen war der 1,25-Metabolit etwa 100mal wirksamer als der 25-OHD₃-Metabolit. Aus der Dosiswirkungskurve für 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ geht hervor, daß es möglich ist, mit Dosen über ca. 0,2 ng/g Körpergewicht bei normalen jungen Mäusen bereits eine erhöhte Knochenresorption auszulösen. Diese Resultate zeigen, daß 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ eine der wirksamsten bisher bekannten Substanzen ist, die auf den Knochenmetabolismus einwirken können. Die Ergebnisse werden im Zusammenhang mit der Rolle, die das 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ bei der normalen Freisetzung von Calcium aus dem Knochen spielt, besprochen.

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Résumé Deux métabolites de la vitamine D₃, le 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OHD₃) et 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25-(OH)₂D₃), stimulent la résorption osseuse dans deux systèmestests alors que la vitamine D₃ est inactive. Ces substances sont testées a) en comparant directement leur action dans les explants osseux de calottes craniennes de sourisin vitro et b) en les injectant dans de jeunes souris et en mesurant le degré de résorptionin vitro, lorsque les explants sont réalisés 18 heures après l'injection. Dans les deux tests, le métabolite 1,25 est environ 100 fois plus puissant que 25-OHD₃. La courbe dose-résponse de 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ indique que des doses au-dessus d'environ 0.2 ng/g de poids corporel sont capables d'induire une augmentation de la résorption osseuse chez de jeunes souris normales. Ces résultats montrent que 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ est une des substances connues les plus actives qui agit sur le métabolisme osseux. Le rôle possible de 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ sur la mobilisation normale du calcium osseux est envisagé.

     

The in vitro effect of gold complexes on bone resorption

Mouse calvaria were maintained in organ culture without serum additives. The effects of three gold complexes--aurothioglucose, aurothiomalate, and auranofin--on active bone resorption (45Ca release) and hydroxyproline synthesis were determined. The influence of these compounds on DNA and protein synthesis and lysosomal enzyme release from calvaria was also assessed. All gold complexes reduced bone resorption to some extent, with auranofin being the most potent within a narrow concentration range (10(-6) M). This concentration of auranofin also significantly inhibited collagen synthesis, although DNA and protein synthesis were unaffected. None of the compounds tested appeared to mediate their action via significant inhibition of lysosomal enzyme release.     

Cortisol inhibits acid-induced bone resorption in vitro

Metabolic acidosis increases urine calcium excretion without an increase in intestinal calcium absorption, resulting in a net loss of bone mineral. In vitro, metabolic acidosis has been shown to initially induce physicochemical mineral dissolution and then enhance cell-mediated bone resorption. Acidic medium stimulates osteoblastic prostaglandin E(2) production, which mediates the subsequent stimulation of osteoclastic bone resorption. Glucocorticoids are also known to decrease bone mineral density, and metabolic acidosis has been shown to increase glucocorticoid production. This study tested the hypothesis that glucocorticoids would exacerbate acid-induced net calcium efflux from bone. Neonatal mouse calvariae were cultured in acid (Acid; pH = 7.06 +/- 0.01; [HCO(3)(-)] = 10.6 +/- 0.3 mM) or neutral (Ntl; pH = 7.43 +/- 0.01; [HCO(3)(-)] = 26.2 +/- 0.5 mM) medium, with or without 1 microM cortisol (Cort), and net calcium efflux and medium prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) levels and osteoclastic beta-glucuronidase activity were determined. Compared with Ntl, Cort alone decreased calcium efflux, medium PGE(2), and osteoclast activity; Acid led to an increase in all three parameters. The addition of Cort to Acid led to a reduction of calcium efflux, medium PGE(2) levels and beta-glucuronidase activity compared with Acid alone. There was a significant direct correlation between medium PGE(2) concentration and net calcium efflux (r = 0.944; n = 23; P < 0.0001), between osteoclastic beta-glucuronidase activity and net calcium efflux (r = 0.663; n = 40; P < 0.001), and between medium PGE(2) concentration and beta-glucuronidase activity (r = 0.976; n = 4; P < 0.01). Thus, in vitro cortisol inhibits acid-induced, cell-mediated osteoclastic bone resorption through a decrease in osteoblastic PGE(2) production. These results suggest that the osteopenia observed in response to metabolic acidosis in vivo is not due to an increase in endogenous cortisol production.     

Evidence for the coupling of bone formation to bone resorption in vitro

An in vitro organ culture system of embryonic chick tibiae was used to examine bone formation and bone resorption under conditions of stimulation with 10⁻¹² M parathyroid extract. The bones were cultured in a serum-free medium to alleviate any potential interference by serum growth factors. Evidence is presented showing that this bone culture system responds to parathyroid extract with an increase in both bone resorption and bone formation. Although initially there was a decrease in formation, this was followed after 12–16 h by an increase in formation which was correlated with resorption (r = .96, p < .05). These results suggest that the increase in formation was some consequence of the increase in resorption, and as such are consistent with the interpretation that coupling can occur in vitro.     

Chemical sympathectomy impairs bone resorption in rats: a role for the sympathetic system on bone metabolism

The possibility that the nervous system may control bone metabolism has been raised, as neuromediators physiologically conveyed by sympathetic fibers (eg, vasoactive intestinal peptide) influence bone resorption in vitro. In this study, the sympathetic system was inactivated by treating rats with guanethidine (40 mg/kg/day), a sympathetic neurotoxic, for 21 days, after which a wave of osteoclastic resorption was induced along the mandibular buccal cortex. The effects of denervation were assessed 4 days later (corresponding to the peak of resorption in this model). The rats exhibited ptosis soon after starting guanethidine, proving the success of the sympathectomy. This was associated with a significant increase in calcitonin gene-related peptide- (+54%, p < 0.02) and substance P-immunoreactive sensory fibers (+29%,p < 0.02), a known effect of sympathectomy. For the quantitation of the bone parameters, the study zone was divided into a juxta-osseous alkaline phosphatase-positive osteogenic compartment and a nonosteogenic compartment. In the osteogenic compartment, the resorption surface was reduced by 56% (p < 0.001) in the treated animals, together with a fall in the number of osteoclasts (-25%,p < 0.05) and impaired osteoclast access to the bone surface. Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase-positive (TRAP+) mononuclear preosteoclasts were found only in this compartment; they were reduced by 43% (p < 0.05) by the sympathectomy. No change in non-specific esterase (NSE)+ osteoclast precursors was found. In the nonosteogenic compartment, vasodilation was the only effect of sympathectomy (+80%,p < 0.05); in particular, the number of NSE+ cells was not modified. Our results indicate that: (1) interactions of NSE+ precursors with osteogenic cells are required for their differentiation into TRAP+ preosteoclasts; (2) the sympathetic nervous system is not involved in osteoclast precursor recruitment; but (3) has a significant effect on resorption by inhibiting preosteoclast differentiation and disturbing osteoclast activation. These data suggest that depletion of sympathetic mediators may disturb osteogenic cell-mediated osteoclast differentiation.     

S 12911-2 inhibits osteoclastic bone resorption in vitro.

The potential anti-osteoporotic activity of the strontium compound, S12911, was tested on osteoclast-like cells and on cultured fetal mouse long bones. From 1 mM Sr2+, S12911 reduced both basal and stimulated bone resorption by decreasing osteoclast activity and ruffled border formation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of S 12911-2 on osteoclastic bone resorption using in vitro systems. Osteoclast-like cells, produced in vitro by co-culture of mouse bone marrow cells with primary osteoblasts, were allowed to settle on dentine slices, and the area of resorption pits formed after 48 h was measured using an image analysis system. S 12911-2, at a minimal active concentration of 1 mM Sr2+, significantly reduced pit formation by these cells (p < 0.05). Pretreatment of slices for 48 h with S 12911-2 (5 mM Sr2+) did not produce appreciable inhibition of resorption. Bone resorption in cultured fetal mouse long bones was assessed by measuring the release of pre-incorporated 45calcium. S 12911-2 inhibited resorption in control cultures (18.9%, p < or = 0.05) and in bones cultured with the active form of vitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3] (44.5%, p < or = 0.05). S 12911-2 had no effect on the number of osteoclasts observed histochemically in longitudinal sections prepared from fetal mouse long bones. Electron microscopy of mouse long bones treated with S 12911-2 (3 mM Sr2+) showed osteoclasts with clear zones facing the bone surface, but without well-developed ruffled borders; untreated bones contained osteoclasts with normal ruffled borders. These results indicate that S 12911-2 inhibits osteoclast activity. This effect is directly linked to the presence of strontium, is effective on basal and stimulated resorption, and involves a decrease in ruffled border formation by osteoclasts.     

Hydrochlorothiazide inhibits osteoclastic bone resorption In vitro

Long-term thiazide diuretic use is associated with higher bone mineral density and reduced hip fracture rates, which are attributed to increased serum calcium levels and decreased parathyroid activity that lead to decreased bone resorption. The present study shows that 1–100 M hydro-chlorothiazide (HCTZ) dose dependently inhibits bone resorption by isolated rat osteoclasts in the bone slice assay with an IC₅₀ of 20 M. At these concentrations, HCTZ did not affect osteoclast survival on bone slices and had no effect on the proliferation of UMR-106 rat osteoblasts, indicating that the compound is not cytotoxic. However, such concentrations of HCTZ are unlikely to be achieved in man where therapeutic doses are usually 12.5–100 mg/day. That the in vitro effect of HCTZ on bone resorption may be due to inhibition of osteoclast carbonic anhydrase is discussed.     

Effect of ACTH on PTH-stimulated bone resorption in vitro

Summary In vitro demonstration of PTH effects requires hormone concentrations greater than the “physiological” concentrations reported by radio-immunoassay or cytochemical assays. This discrepancy could be the result of binding or destruction of PTH at nonbiologically active sites. In the present study, ACTH was found to have no effect by itself on bone resorption, but addition of ACTH to bone cultures together with low concentrations of PTH resulted in a specific enhancement of PTH-stimulated bone resorption. This effect was not observed when bone resorption was stimulated by PGE₂ and 1,25(OH)₂D₃, and it was blocked by human serum. The effect of ACTH is similar to the enhancement in PTH-stimulated bone resorption by poly-l-lysine [7]. We suggest that the amplification of PTH stimulation was the result of displacement of PTH from nonbiologically active sites, making more PTH available for binding to its biologically active receptor. An alternative explanation for our results was that ACTH prevented degradation of PTH by bone-derived proteolytic enzymes. Thus the sensitivity of bioassays for PTH could be improved by adding ACTH.     

Promethazine inhibits osteoclastic bone resorption In vitro

Summary Several studies have shown that promethazine can reduce age-related osteopenia in mice. Furthermore, prolonged treatment with promethazine (50 mg/day) increases bone mineral content in the lumbar spine in post-menopausal women with osteopenia. However, the mechanism of action of promethazine has not been elucidated. The present study shows that promethazine HCl (0.01 – 10 M) dose-dependently inhibits bone resorption by isolated rat osteoclasts in the bone slice assay with an IC₅₀ of 1 M. Since these concentrations are likely to be achieved in vivo, it is suggested that the beneficial effect of promethazine on osteopenia is at least partly due to a direct inhibitory effect on osteoclast activity.     

Effect of ACTH on PTH-stimulated bone resorption in vitro

In vitro demonstration of PTH effects requires hormone concentrations greater than the "physiological" concentrations reported by radioimmunoassay or cytochemical assays. This discrepancy could be the result of binding or destruction of PTH at nonbiologically active sites. In the present study, ACTH was found to have no effect by itself on bone resorption, but addiction of ACTH to bone cultures together with low concentrations of PTH resulted in a specific enhancement of PTH-stimulated bone resorption. This effect was not observed when bone resorption was stimulated by PGE2 and 1,25(OH)2D3, and it was blocked by human serum. The effect of ACTH is similar to the enhancement in PTH-stimulated bone resorption by poly-l-lysine [7]. We suggest that the amplification of PTH stimulation was the result of displacement of PTH from nonbiologically active sites, making more PTH available for binding to its biologically active receptor. An alternative explanation for our results was that ACTH prevented degradation of PTH by bone-derived proteolytic enzymes. Thus the sensitivity of bioassays for PTH could be improved by adding ACTH.     

Indapamide, a thiazide-like diuretic, decreases bone resorption in vitro.

We recently showed that indapamide (IDP), a thiazide-related diuretic, increases bone mass and decreases bone resorption in spontaneously hypertensive rats supplemented with sodium. In the present study, we evaluated the in vitro effects of this diuretic on bone cells, as well as those of hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ), the reference thiazide, and acetazolamide (AZ), a carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitor. We showed that 10(-4) M IDP and 10(-4) M AZ, as well as 10(-5) M pamidronate (APD), decreased bone resorption in organ cultures and in cocultures of osteoblast-like cells and bone marrow cells in the presence of 10(-8) M 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3]. We investigated the mechanism of this antiresorptive effect of IDP; IDP decreased osteoclast differentiation as the number of osteoclasts developing in coculture of marrow and osteoblast-like cells was decreased markedly. We then investigated whether IDP affected osteoblast-like cells because these cells are involved in the osteoclast differentiation. Indeed, IDP increased osteoblast-like cell proliferation and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) expression. Nevertheless, it did not modify the colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF-1) production by these cells. In addition, osteoblast-like cells expressed the Na+/Cl- cotransporter that is necessary for the renal action of thiazide diuretics, but IDP inhibited bone resorption in mice lacking this cotransporter, so the inhibition of bone resorption and osteoclast differentiation did not involve this pathway. Thus, we hypothesized that IDP may act directly on cells of the osteoclast lineage. We observed that resorption pits produced by spleen cells cultured in the presence of soluble osteoclast differentiation factor (sODF) and CSF-1 were decreased by 10(-4) M IDP as well as 10(-5) M APD. In conclusion, in vitro IDP increased osteoblast proliferation and decreased bone resorption at least in part by decreasing osteoclast differentiation via a direct effect on hematopoietic precursors.     

The role of osteocytes in bone resorption during lactation: morphometric observations

It has been suggested that osteocytes may resorb bone during the calcium mobilization that occurs during lactation. To test this hypothesis morphometric methods were used to evaluate changes in mature nonmated female rats, 6-day postpartum nonlactating rats, 21-day postpartum nonlactating rats, 6-day lactating rats, 15-day lactating rats, and 21-day lactating rats using femur cross sections in the diaphyseal region. Osteoclast resorption per unit length of periosteal surface, as well as other measures of resorption activity, demonstrated that by 15 days of lactation a significant mobilization of calcium was occurring. The volume density of osteocyte lacunae and individual lacunar volumes from serial section reconstruction showed no increase in the lactating groups. Indeed, the only significant change in lacunae volume was a decrease apparently due to pregnancy. It is concluded from this study that osteocytes do not resorb bone during lactation.     

The role of geranylgeranylation in bone resorption and its suppression by bisphosphonates in fetal bone explants in vitro: A clue to the mechanism of action of nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates.

Bisphosphonates, synthetic compounds used in the treatment of skeletal disorders, suppress osteoclast-mediated bone resorption by a yet unidentified mechanism. Previous studies showed that some bisphosphonates can inhibit enzymes of the mevalonate pathway, and nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates inhibit protein prenylation in mouse macrophages. In the present study, we examined the involvement of the mevalonate pathway in basal and bisphosphonate-inhibited osteoclastic resorption in fetal mouse long bone explants, an experimental model representative of the in vivo action of bisphosphonates. Mevastatin inhibited bone resorption at concentrations similar to those of the potent bisphosphonate ibandronate. This effect could be totally reversed by the addition of mevalnate and geranylgeraniol but not farnesol. The first two intermediates but not the latter could also stimulate basal bone resorption. The inhibitory effect of ibandronate on bone resorption could be totally reversed by the addition of geranylgeraniol and to a small extent only by mevalonate and farnesol, indicating that the bisphosphonate acts at a level of the mevalonate pathway different from that of mevastatin. Histologic sections of ibandronate-treated bone explants showed further rescue of functioning osteoclasts during concomitant treatment with geranylgeraniol. Finally, the reversibility of bisphosphonate inhibited osteoclastic resorption by geranylgeraniol was also demonstrated for the potent nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates alendronate, olpadronate, and risedronate but not for the non-nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates clodronate and etidronate. These studies demonstrate that protein geranylgeranylation but not farnesylation is important for osteoclast-mediated bone resorption and that nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates exert their antiresorptive action probably by affecting enzymes of the mevalonate pathway involved in the generation of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate.     

MicroRNA在强直性脊柱炎成骨、破骨机制中的作用

炎性骨破坏和新骨形成是强直性脊柱炎(ankylosing spondylitis,AS)的典型病理改变,AS早期以炎症为主,晚期出现异位骨化和骨破坏,异位骨化和骨破坏两种矛盾的表现反映了强直性脊柱炎患者成骨与破骨过程之间的动态平衡被打破。其发病机制尚不完全清楚,目前研究认为,AS复杂的新骨形成机制与Wnt/β-catenin信号通路及BMP/Smads通路密切相关,而破骨细胞则在骨破坏过程中起重要作用,RANKL/RANK/OPG系统中的细胞因子是调控破骨细胞分化成熟的关键因子。Micro RNA可调节成骨细胞、软骨细胞和破骨细胞的分化与功能,是骨形成、骨吸收、骨重塑和修复过程中的关键调节因子。研究MicroRNA在强直性脊柱炎成骨、破骨机制中的作用,可为AS的诊断和治疗提供新的依据。     

Cyclosporine A inhibits calcemic hormone-induced bone resorption in vitro

We have investigated the in vitro effects of cyclosporine (CsA), a potent immunosuppressive agent, on bone resorption induced by calcemic hormones. CsA inhibited parathyroid hormone (PTH), prostaglandin E2, 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3), and osteoclast-activating factor induced resorption of fetal rat limb bones in a dose-dependent manner. Established ongoing resorptive activity in bone was also inhibited by CsA. The CsA inhibition of bone resorption could be partially surmounted by higher concentrations of PTH and 1,25(OH)2D3. The inhibitory effects of CsA on limb bone resorption were reversible. Neither protein nor DNA synthesis were inhibited by treatment of limb bones with CsA. Thus, the inhibitory effect of this agent on bone resorption is not a cytotoxic one. These data could suggest that the induction of bone resorption by the calcemic hormones involves an immune cell derived mediator such as a lymphokine.     

Osteoclastic bone resorption: in vitro analysis of the rate of resorption and migration of individual osteoclasts

Osteoclasts isolated from the long bones of newborn rabbits were cultured on translucent devitalized bone slices and observed by phase-contrast time-lapse cinemicrography and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This has allowed us to measure the rate of resorption and the rate of migration of individual osteoclasts. Our films show that osteoclasts do not resorb while migrating. When the osteoclastic resorption areas, which are easily recognizable with phase-contrast microscopy as areas delineated by refractile lines, were observed by SEM, such areas appeared as excavated areas lined with a network of collagen fibrils. The rate of migration was calculated using time lapse recordings, and varied from 30 micron/hr to 248 micron/hr, with a mean +/- SEM of 105 +/- 10 micron/hr. The rate of resorption by individual osteoclasts was calculated using both time lapse and SEM data, and varied from 43 micron 3/hr to 1225 micron 3/hr with a mean +/- SEM of 390 +/- 109 micron 3/hr. Additional observations indicated not only that the same osteoclast can resorb at a different rate at different times without any definable alteration of the culture conditions, but also that the same osteoclast can simultaneously resorb two lacunae at different rates. These observations provide, for the first time, data on the rate of resorption and the rate of migration of individual osteoclasts on a bone substratum.     

The N-terminal fragment of osteocalcin is released during osteoclastic bone resorption in vitro

As a novel method for measuring bone resorption, an immunoassay system for human N-terminal osteocalcin (N-OC) was developed to determine if osteocalcin molecules are released from bone degraded by osteoclasts in vitro. The assay system employed a monoclonal antibody to the first 20 N-terminal residues of osteocalcin as the solid phase and polyclonal antibodies against these same residues as an enzyme conjugate. This assay system could detect the N-terminal portion of osteocalcin formed during the degradation of the human osteocalcin molecule by trypsin or cathepsin D. Osteoclasts were isolated from human alveolar bone and cultured on human bone slices; the osteocalcin content in the media from these cultures was measured by this N-OC assay method. The N-terminal fragment of osteocalcin was the major form of osteocalcin released during osteoclastic bone resorption along with small amounts of intact osteocalcin. Interleukin-1 (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), stimulators of osteoclastic bone resorption, increased the N-OC level by 1.5 fold compared with the level of N-OC in osteoclast cultures in the absence of stimulators. In contrast, treatment of the cultures with calcitonin or an inhibitor of cathepsin D (E-64), both of which inhibit osteoclastic bone resorption, decreased the amount of N-OC in the culture supernatants. These results suggest that the N-terminal fragment of osteocalcin is released during osteoclastic bone resorption and that its level may serve as an index of bone resorption in vitro. Received: June 2, 1997 / Accepted: Oct. 1, 1997