Talar neck and body fractures

Fractures of the talar neck and body are rare and serious injuries. The vast majority are either intra-articular or lead indirectly to an intra-articular incongruity through a dislocation at the talar neck. Because of the high energy needed to produce talar fractures, they are frequently seen in multiply injured and polytraumatised patients. Open fractures and fracture-dislocations are treated as emergencies. Preoperative planning of definite internal fixation requires CT scanning. To obtain a complete intra-operative overview allowing for anatomical reconstruction of the articular surfaces and the axial deviation bilateral approaches are usually necessary. Internal fixation is achieved with screws or mini-plates supplemented by temporary K-wire transfixation in cases of marked additional ligamentous instability. The clinical outcome after talar neck and body fractures is determined by the severity of the injury and the quality of reduction and internal fixation. The timing of definite internal fixation does not appear to affect the final result. The rates of avascular necrosis (AVN) correlate with the degree of initial dislocation. Only total AVN with collapse of the talar body leads to inferior results with the need for further surgery whilst prolonged immobilisation or offloading of the affected foot is not indicated for partial AVN. Talar malunions and non-unions after inadequate treatment of displaced fractures are debiliating conditions that should be treated by surgical correction. Treatment options include corrective osteotomy by recreating the former fracture with secondary fixation, free or vascularised bone grafting and salvage by realignment and fusion of the affected joint(s).     

Anatomical reconstruction of malunited talus fractures: a prospective study of 10 patients followed for 4 years

BACKGROUND: Malunions or nonunions after displaced talar fractures cause significant disability. Salvage procedures such as corrective arthrodesis do not restore normal foot function. METHODS: Between 1994 and 2002, we treated 10 patients (aged 15-50 years) who had painful malunions with secondary anatomical reconstruction, at a mean of 1 year after sustaining displaced fractures of the talar body or neck. 5 patients were classified as type I (malunion and/or residual joint displacement), 2 as type II (nonunion with displacement) and 3 as type III (malunion with partial avascular necrosis, AVN). Correction was by an osteotomy through the malunited fracture or removal of the pseudarthrosis. Internal fixation was achieved with screws and additional bone grafting if necessary. RESULTS: No wound healing problems or infections were seen. Solid union was obtained without redislocation in all cases, with no signs of development or progression of AVN. At a mean of 4 (1-8) years after reconstruction, all patients were satisfied with the result--except one patient who required ankle fusion 8 years after reconstruction. The mean AOFAS Ankle Hindfoot Score increased from 38 to 86 (p < 0.001). INTERPRETATION: Secondary anatomical reconstruction with joint preservation leads to considerable functional improvement in painful talar malunions. Partial AVN does not preclude good to excellent functional results. The quality of the bone stock and joint cartilage (rather than the time from injury) appears to be important for the choice of treatment.     

Anatomical reconstruction of malunited talus fractures

Background Malunions or nonunions after displaced talar fractures cause significant disability. Salvage procedures such as corrective arthrodesis do not restore normal foot function.

Methods Between 1994 and 2002, we treated 10 patients (aged 15–50 years) who had painful malunions with secondary anatomical reconstruction, at a mean of 1 year after sustaining displaced fractures of the talar body or neck. 5 patients were classified as type I (malunion and/or residual joint displacement), 2 as type II (nonunion with displacement) and 3 as type III (malunion with partial avascular necrosis, AVN). Correction was by an osteotomy through the malunited fracture or removal of the pseudarthrosis. Internal fixation was achieved with screws and additional bone grafting if necessary.

Results No wound healing problems or infections were seen. Solid union was obtained without redislocation in all cases, with no signs of development or progression of AVN. At a mean of 4 (1–8) years after reconstruction, all patients were satisfied with the result—except one patient who required ankle fusion 8 years after reconstruction. The mean AOFAS Ankle Hindfoot Score increased from 38 to 86 (p?<?0.001).

Interpretation Secondary anatomical reconstruction with joint preservation leads to considerable functional improvement in painful talar malunions. Partial AVN does not preclude good to excellent functional results. The quality of the bone stock and joint cartilage (rather than the time from injury) appears to be important for the choice of treatment.     

Avascular necrosis of the talus

Avascular necrosis (AVN) of the talus has always been a surgical challenge because the talus is hidden by its anatomic location and has a precarious blood supply. Most cases (75%) of talar AVN are traumatically induced in association with talar body and talar neck fractures.AVN of the talus can be a significant problem because collapse of the talar dome leads to degenerative changes and pain and disability of the ankle and subtalar joints. Although there are many published treatments for posttraumatic AVN of the talus, critical outcome studies are still lacking.     

Antiresorptive treatment and talar collapse after displaced fractures of the talar neck: a long-term follow-up of 19 patients

Background and purpose — Displaced fractures of the talar neck are associated with a high risk of structural collapse. In this observational analysis we hypothesized that pharmacological inhibition of osteoclast function might reduce the risk of structural collapse through a reduction in bone resorption during revascularization of the injured bone.Patients and methods — Between 2002 and 2014 we treated 19 patients with displaced fractures of the talar neck with open reduction and internal fixation. Of these, 16 patients were available for final follow-up between January and November 2017 (median 12 years, IQR 7–13). Among these, 6 patients with Hawkins type 3 fractures and 2 patients with Hawkins type 2b fractures received postoperative antiresorptive treatment (7 alendronate, 1 denosumab) for 6 to 12 months. The remaining 8 patients received no antiresorptive treatment. The self-reported foot and ankle score (SEFAS) was available in all patients and 15 patients had undergone computed tomography (CT) at final follow-up, which allowed evaluation of structural collapse of the talar dome and signs of post-traumatic osteoarthritis.Results — The risk for partial collapse of the talar dome was equal in the 2 groups (3 in each group) and post-traumatic arthritis was observed in all patients. The SEFAS in patients with antiresorptive treatment was lower, at 21 points (95% CI 15–26), compared with those without treatment, 29 points (CI 22–35).Interpretation — Following a displaced fracture of the talar neck, we found no effect of antiresorptive therapy on the rate of talar collapse, post-traumatic osteoarthritis, and patient-reported outcomes.

Talar neck fractures are often the result of a high-energy trauma and are associated with a high risk of complications (Dodd and Lefaivre 2015). Given the intraarticular location of the talus and its extensive cartilage coverage, its blood supply is vulnerable. Traumatic disruption of the blood supply during fracture of the talar neck leaves the talar dome at a high risk of avascular necrosis (AVN). The risk of AVN seems to be dependent on the presence of subtalar joint dislocation. If the joint is dislocated (type 2b and more severe types) the risk of AVN is 25–50%. No AVN is seen in cases of minor joint displacement (type 2a) (Vallier et al. 2014).Interruption of the blood supply to the talar dome impairs the fracture healing capacity and bone remodeling. Subsequently, with revascularization of avascular areas, damaged osteocytes trigger the formation of osteoclasts (Glimcher and Kenzora 1979). These osteoclasts resorb the dead bone, and osteoblasts deposit new bone material (Hofstaetter et al. 2006). If the rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of new bone formation the mechanical properties of the talar dome will deteriorate and may not be sufficient to withstand the forces transmitted during weight-bearing. The resulting collapse of the talus is associated with severe loss of function, limited range of motion and pain (Annappa et al. 2015).Bisphosphonates reduce osteoclast function and thereby inhibit bone resorption. These agents have been proven to be successful in the treatment of several bone metabolic disorders, such as osteoporosis, osteogenesis imperfecta, Paget’s disease of bone, and metastatic bone disease. In addition, in the treatment of AVN of the femoral head, bisphosphonate treatment is associated with a reduction in the rate of structural collapse (Luo et al. 2014).Considering the detrimental effects of post-traumatic AVN of the talus, and the low-risk profile of short-term antiresorptive treatment after a fracture (Abrahamsen 2010, Li et al. 2015), our department has encouraged postoperative treatment with antiresorptives after displaced fractures of the talar neck. In this retrospective analysis we evaluated the effects of this recommended treatment on the risk of talar collapse, the development of post-traumatic osteoarthritis (OA), and patient-reported outcome.     

Osteosynthese zentraler Talusfrakturen

Objective

Anatomic reduction of talar neck and body fractures with axial realignment and restoration of the articular surfaces of the talus.

Indications

Displaced talar neck and body fractures.

Contraindications

High perioperative risk, soft tissue infection, neurogenic osteoarthropathy.

Surgical technique

Reduction of the axial alignment of the talus and its joints via bilateral approaches according to the preoperative CT-based planning. A medial malleolar osteotomy may be necessary to approach the talar dome. The blood supply via the deltoid ligament and the sinus tarsi has to be respected. Manipulation of the main fragments with K-wires introduced temporarily; a mini-distractor is helpful in restoring the length. Internal fixation is tailored to the individual fracture pattern, including conventional and headless screws, bioresorbable pins, lost K-wires, and/or minifragment plates. Joint transfixation for 6 weeks to ensure ligamentous healing if instability persists after internal fixation. With severe soft tissue damage, temporary tibiometatarsal external fixation is applied until soft tissue consolidation.

Postoperative management

Range of motion exercises of the ankle and subtalar joints starting postoperative day 2 except for cases with joint transfixation. Partial weight bearing of 20 kg for 10–12 weeks. Use of a cast or walker for 6 weeks followed by intensive active and passive range of motion exercises of the ankle and subtalar joints.

Results

Over 8 years 79 fractures of the talar neck and body were treated. In all, 43 patients with 45 talar neck (n?=?30) and body (n?=?15) fractures were re-examined clinically and radiologically (mean follow-up 3 years). Definite treatment consisted of open reduction and screw fixation of the talus in 41 cases and small plate fixation in 2 cases supplemented by temporary external fixation for 1–3 weeks in 12 cases. At follow-up, the Maryland Foot Score averaged 86.1 and the AOFAS Ankle/Hindfoot Score averaged 78.9. The Hawkins classification was of prognostic value in talar neck fractures. The functional results and the rate of avascular necrosis (AVN) were unaffected by the time to definite internal fixation. AVN was observed in 11 cases (24?%); with only partial AVN involving less than one third of the talar body in 8 of these patients. Due to complete AVN with collapse of the talar dome, 3 patients (6.7?%) required fusion. Signs of posttraumatic arthritis of the tibiotalar or subtalar joint were seen in 21 cases (47?%). The rate of symptomatic posttraumatic arthritis correlated with the occurrence of total AVN, but not with partial AVN.     

Complications after talus fractures: A trauma centre experience

BackgroundTalus fractures are anatomically complex, high-energy injuries that can be associated with poor outcomes and high complication rates. Complications include non-union, avascular necrosis (AVN) and post-traumatic osteoarthritis (OA). The aim of this study was to analyse the outcomes of these injuries in a large series.MethodsWe retrospectively collected data on 100 consecutive patients presenting to a single high volume major trauma centre with a talus fracture between March 2012 and March 2020. All patients were over the age of 18 with a minimum of 12 months follow up post injury. Retrospective review of case notes and imaging was conducted to collate demographic data and to classify fracture morphology. Whether patients were managed non-operatively or operatively was noted and where used, the type of operative fixation, outcomes and complications were recorded.ResultsThe mean age was 35 years (range: 18–76 years). Open injuries accounted for 22% of patients. An isolated talar body fracture was the most frequent fracture (47%), followed by neck fractures (20%). The overall non-union rate was 2% with both cases occurring in patients with open fractures. The AVN rate was 6%, with the highest prevalence in talar neck fractures. Overall rates of post-traumatic OA of the tibio-talar, sub-talar and talo-navicular joints were 12%, 8%, and 6%, respectively. These were higher after a joint dislocation, and higher in neck or head fractures. The postoperative infection rate was 6%. The overall secondary surgery rate was 9%. There were 2% of patients who subsequently underwent a joint arthrodesis.ConclusionOur study found that talar body fractures are more common than previously reported; however, talar neck fractures cause the highest rates of AVN and post-traumatic arthritis. Open fractures also carry a greater risk of complications. This information is useful during consenting and preoperatively when planning these cases to ensure adverse outcomes may be anticipated.     

距骨骨折畸形愈合及不愈合的手术治疗

目的 探讨距骨骨折畸形愈合及不愈合的手术治疗方法.方法 2000年1月至2008年1月,手术治疗距骨骨折畸形愈合及不愈合22例,其中男性17例,女性5例,年龄15-52岁,平均34岁.根据Zwipp提出的距骨骨折畸形愈合及不愈合的分类标准,Ⅰ型(距骨骨折畸形愈合或伴有关节脱位)10例,Ⅱ型(距骨骨折不愈合伴关节脱位)8例,Ⅲ型(在Ⅰ或Ⅱ型的基础上出现部分距骨缺血性坏死)4例.采用美国足踝外科协会(American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society,AOFAS)踝、后足评分标准,术前评分平均35.4分(28.0～41.0分),采用的手术方法为切开复位截骨矫形内固定术或关节融合术.结果 17例患者获得随访,随访时间12～24个月,平均14个月.伤口Ⅰ期愈合,无感染.所有患者均牢固愈合,未发生再次移位,也未发现距骨缺血性坏死的进一步发展.骨折愈合时间12～18周,平均14周.患者术后平均14周(12～18周)时可完全负重行走,无明显疼痛不适.术后AOFAS踝、后足评分标准评分平均86.6分(78.0～98.0分).结论 对于陈旧性距骨骨折患者应积极进行手术治疗,根据距骨骨折畸形愈合的具体情况采用不同的治疗方案,以达满意疗效.     

Secondary correction of talar fractures: asking for trouble?

Secondary anatomical reconstruction of malunions or nonunions after talar fractures or fracture-dislocations with preservation of all three joints aims at maximal functional rehabilitation. A corrective osteotmy or revision of a pseudoarthrosis with axial realignment and internal fixation was carried out in 22 patients (aged 15 to 50) at a mean of 9 (range, 1.5 to 45) months after having sustained a fracture of the talar head, neck or body. 20 patients were followed for a mean of 4.8 (range, 1.5 to 14) years after reconstruction. No signs of development or progression of avascular necrosis (AVN) were observed in any case. Some amount of progression of peritalar arthritis was seen in 12 of 20 patients (60%). One patient required ankle fusion 7.5 years after reconstruction, another patient needed talo-navicular fusion after 5 years, and a third required a two-stage fusion of the ankle and the subtalar joint after 18 months. Two patients underwent arthrolysis of the ankle and screw removal after 7 and 14 years for dorsiflexion deficit at the ankle. The mean AOFAS ankle/hindfoot score increased from 36.9 preoperatively to 87.5 after correction (p < 0.001). Secondary correction after talar fractures appears promising in active and compliant patients without symptomatic arthritis, with good bone stock, no or partial AVN (less than one-third of the talar body), and no infection. Late fusion with a well-aligned talus remains a salvage option in cases of progressive arthritis.     

Avascular necrosis after minimally displaced talus fracture in a child

This is a case report of a delayed diagnosis in a 5 year old child who sustained a minimally displaced fracture of the proximal or posterior aspect of the talar neck of the left foot with no subluxation at the subtalar or ankle joint of his left talus. Avascular necrosis (AVN) appeared 6 months after the injury. The further course was protracted with another 12 months of non-weight bearing. The case was followed until 36 months after the injury with nearly full functional recovery. An extensive literature review revealed a calculated incidence of AVN after reportedly non-displaced talus fractures in children of 16 per cent which is considerably more than is reported in adults. Nearly half of all reported cases occurred after the fracture had been missed initially. 8 of 11 cases with reported age occurred between 1 and 5 years. No child was older than 9 years, which indicates that the immature talus may be more prone to AVN. Some possible causes for the higher incidence of AVN in children with non-displaced talus fractures are discussed. Prolonged non weight-bearing cannot be recommended, since it reportedly does not alter the course of the disease.     

Operative outcomes of a high-grade talar neck fracture – Lessons from 20 years’ clinical experience in a single,tertiary hospital

BackgroundThe operative treatment of high-grade talar neck fractures remains challenging, despite numerous previous reports. Our goal was to determine long-term outcomes and to establish a plan for management of postoperative complications (especially, avascular necrosis [AVN] of talar body) after high-grade talar neck fractures. We hypothesized that not every case with AVN of talar body require secondary surgical interventions.MethodsWe retrospectively reviewed the radiographic and clinical findings of 14 patients who underwent operative treatment for high-grade talar neck fractures (modified Hawkins type III and IV) between January 2000 and December 2017. The minimum follow-up duration for inclusion was 3 years. Using radiographs during follow-up, we assessed the development of AVN of the talar body, malunion, nonunion, and posttraumatic osteoarthritis. Information about the secondary operations and their outcomes were also investigated using visual analogue scale (VAS) and American orthopaedic foot and ankle society (AOFAS) ankle-hindfoot scale at the final follow-up.ResultsIn 10 of 14 patients (71.4 %), talar body AVN developed during follow-up. However, secondary operation was required in only 30.0 % (3 of 10 patients). In the remaining 7 patients who did not undergo secondary operation, the symptoms were tolerable with a maximum of 89 months follow-up; although the talar body presented sclerotic changes, but without talar dome collapse. The rates of malunion and post-traumatic subtalar osteoarthritis were 21.4 % and 14.3 %, respectively. No patients presented with fracture site nonunion. After a mean of 55.86 ± 14.45 months (range, 37–89) follow-up, the final mean VAS and AOFAS scores were 3.07 ± 0.73 (range, 2–4) and 80.43 ± 3.11 (range, 75–85), respectively.ConclusionWe recommend leaving talar body AVN untouched, unless the patient’s symptoms become intolerable. In our clinical practice, postoperative AVN could be stably maintained without talar dome collapse for more than 7 years, although the sclerotic change persisted. Despite the small number of patients, our clinical experience may benefit patients with high-grade talar neck fractures and surgeons who treat such rare, serious, and challenging foot injuries.Level of evidenceLevel IV, Case series     

关节镜微创治疗距骨颈骨折的临床疗效

目的评价关节镜监视下微创治疗距骨颈骨折的临床疗效。方法回顾性研究2005—2013年于我院住院治疗的距骨颈骨折患者27例,根据治疗方法分为关节镜组和切开复位内固定组。关节镜组常规采用前内侧和前外侧入路,必要时加用距下关节入路;切开复位内固定组均采用相同的前内侧切口。两组术中均达到骨折的解剖复位,终末随访时进行美国足踝外科协会（AOFAS）的踝一后足评分（AHS评分）。结果两组患者术后均无感染刀口不愈合的情况。关节镜组2例患者发生了距骨缺血性坏死（AVN）,其中Ⅱ型患者1例、Ⅲ型患者1例,发生率为18．2％;切开复位内固定组4例发生了距骨缺血性坏死,其中Ⅱ型患者3例、Ⅲ型患者1例,发生率为25％（x2=7．143,P=0．008）。最终随访时,关节镜组AHS评分为（86.3±9．2）分,切开复位内固定组为（78．5±7．8）分,组间差异具有统计学意义（t=1．303,P=0．205）。结论关节镜监视下复位经皮内固定距骨颈骨折创伤小,降低术后距骨缺血性坏死发生率,临床疗效满意,是治疗距骨颈骨折患者的良好选择。     

Combined ipsilateral fractures of talus and calcaneus

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the frequency of combined ipsilateral talar and calcaneal fractures, the fracture pattern in combination and the clinical outcome of the combined operative treatment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Out of 950 patients with calcaneal fractures and 190 patients with talar fractures treated operatively between 1984 and 2003, 11 patients (1% of calcaneal and 6% of talar fractures) were identified with combined ipsilateral talar and calcaneal fractures. Closed reduction and external fixation was performed in one patient with a crush foot injury, and ORIF in all other patients and fractures. All patients underwent clinical and radiological evaluation after a minimum followup period of one year using the AOFAS-Hindfoot Score. RESULTS: Seven patients had central talar body and 4 patients talar neck fractures. Nine calcaneal fractures were extraarticular sustentaculum, as well as processus anterior fractures, and two were intraarticular fractures. Average followup was 6 (range, 1 to 12.5; median, 4.5) years. There were no perioperative complications related to ORIF. AOFAS-Hindfoot-Score averaged 78.6 (range, 50 to 100). The followup x-rays showed post-traumatic arthritis in the ankle joint in 3 patients and in the subtalar joint in five. AVN with peudarthorsis was present in one patient with an intraarticular calcaneal fracture. Patients with intraarticular calcaneal fractures presented with the worst functional results (AOFAS-Score, 50 and 64), none of these patients required a secondary ankle or subtalar fusion. All other patients had good and excellent functional outcome. CONCLUSION: Combined ipsilateral talar and calcaneal fractures are rare injuries. Extraarticular calcaneal fractures are more common in this injury pattern, while there was no preference for either talar neck or talar body fractures. Operative treatment with anatomic open reduction and internal fixation may result in favorable clinical outcome. Combined surgical approaches to the hindfoot did not result in increased morbidity.     

Gelenkerhaltende Korrekturen bei Fehlheilungen im Chopart-Gelenk

Background

Injuries to the mid-tarsal (Chopart) joint are frequently overlooked or misinterpreted and therefore, not adequately treated at initial presentation. Malunion results in a loss of essential joint function and a three-dimensional malalignment leading to considerable impairment of global foot function and a rapid development of painful posttraumatic arthritis.

Methods

If no symptomatic arthritis is present, joint displacement or non-union may be subject to secondary anatomical reconstruction and internal fixation. Bone grafting becomes necessary in cases of non-union or partial avascular necrosis (AVN) of the navicular bone. In most cases joint destruction will have lead to manifest posttraumatic arthritis requiring fusion of the affected joint. Arthrodesis is always combined with axial realignment. Rebalancing of the medial and lateral foot columns is of utmost importance.

Results

We have treated 16 patients with joint-preserving correction of the Chopart joint: 6 of the navicular bone, 3 of the talar head, 3 of the anterior calcaneal process, 2 of the cuboid and 2 with combined malunions. Two female patients aged 50 and 67 years developed AVN of the navicular bone and required talonavicular fusion and one patient with a nonunion of the anterior calcaneal process needed a second revision surgery to achieve union. The average American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) score of 12 patients increased from 37 preoperatively to 77 at follow-up after an average of 2 years.

Conclusion

Joint-preserving corrections are generally possible for all four bony components of the Chopart joint in carefully selected cases of malunited fractures and fracture dislocations.     

Indications for surgery in ruptures of ankle joint ligaments (author's transl)

X-ray films of the forced extreme joint position are required for diagnosis of lateral ligamentous injuries of the ankle joint. These x-ray films must be taken in forced extreme joint position in two planes (a.p. and lateral planes) by means of a special holding device simulating the mechanism of trauma by supination, inversion and adduction of the ankle joint by plantar flexion of the foot. If there is a 5 degree difference in talar tilt angle or a 5 mm difference in talar subluxation, an operation is indicated to prevent post-traumatic weak ankle and early arthrosis following chronic instability.     

可吸收螺钉固定治疗移位的距骨颈骨折

目的 研究距骨颈骨折新的手术治疗方法。方法 1996年4月～2001年3月，采用足内侧途径加内踝截骨显露距骨颈骨折，利用可吸收螺钉对骨折行内固定治疗9例移位的距骨颈骨折。术后膝下石膏管型固定6～12周，骨折有明显愈合迹象后，患者每日定时在短石膏靴外进行一定范围内活动。结果 9例均获随访15～60个月，平均28个月，骨愈合时间20～42周。按AOFAS足部评分标准，功能优良率77．8％(7／9)。术后1例伤口表浅皮肤感染并皮缘部分坏死，为HawkinsⅢ型。术后随访2例并发距骨体缺血性坏死，1例为HawkinsⅡ型，系5周即扶拐负重，评分为中；1例HawkinsⅢ型，经保守治疗无效后行踝关节融合术，评分为差。结论 以足内侧途径为入路，应用可吸收拉力螺钉固定治疗；矩骨颈骨折是一种新手术方法，辅以严格的术后处理可获得良好的临床治疗效果，值得推广使用。     

The role of external fixation in the management of infected avascular necrosis after traumatic talus fractures

PurposeAvascular necrosis (AVN) after fractures of the talus is a distinct and challenging clinical entity that is associated with poor outcomes. Although several articles are published on the management of posttraumatic AVN of the talus, very little is known about the management of infected AVN after talus fractures. Therefore, three cases of infected AVN were treated successfully by extensive debridement, external fixation and arthrodesis.MethodsThree cases of infected AVN of the talus were encountered after a mean of 3 months (range 2–6 months) after initial reconstructive surgery. Suspected infection was confirmed by positron emission tomography scan (PET-CT). Management involved extensive debridement, PMMA cement if necessary and final fusion using medial external fixator, accompanied by culture guided antibiotics. Functional outcome was assessed using the Foot Function Index (FFI) and the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society hindfoot score (AOFAS). Quality of life (QOL) was measured by the EuroQol-5D (EQ-5D).ResultsAfter a mean follow up of 24 months (range 13–29), FFI index scores ranged from poor to good (23, 50, 56) with similar AOFAS scores indicating poor to fair functional outcome (38, 41, 71). The EQ-5D score was 0.78. Overall patient satisfaction was high with a mean VAS of 8.3 (range 8–9).ConclusionInfected talar AVN is a rare condition associated with severe long-term morbidity in term of joint function. The authors recommend extensive debridement and arthrodesis by means of external fixation, followed by post-operative culture-guided antibiotics for the treatment of infected avascular necrosis of traumatic talar fractures. Shared decision-making and expectation management are of crucial importance and may lead to high patient satisfaction despite low functional outcomes.Level of evidenceIV, Retrospective case series.     

Technique Tip: Correcting Malalignment of the Talus Using a Pin-Based Distracter During Arthroscopic Ankle Arthrodesis

It is technical demanding work to perform arthroscopic ankle arthrodesis to treat end-stage ankle osteoarthritis with excessive talar tilt. This article aimed to provide an effective technique tip for the treatment of Takakura stage 3b ankle osteoarthritis with a talar tilt angle more than 15 degrees under arthroscopy. A conventional anterior arthroscopic approach is used. After arthroscopic examination and debridement, one pin which is parallel to the distal tibial surface is inserted into the tibial side of the ankle, the other pin which is parallel to the talar dome surface is inserted into the talar side of the ankle, both at the coronal plane. Then a distracter is used in the medial side to open the interspace of the tibiotalar joint and correct the talar tilt through the 2 pins, under which circumstance the tibiotalar joint surface can be well prepared. Next an anti-distracter is used in the lateral side to close the tibiotalar interspace and correct the talar tilt through the 2 pins, in which condition 3 fully threaded cannulated lag screws can be inserted through guide pins in a cross pattern to fix the ankle joint. We used the pin-based distracter to open and close tibiotalar interspace, correct the talar tilt and maintain a good mechanical axis for fusion, and the outcomes were good.     

Cadaveric Analysis of Exposure of the Talar Articular Surface Through the Posteromedial Approach

The purpose of this cadaveric study is to assess the talar articular surface visible through a modified posterior medial approach to the ankle joint for talar osteochondral defects. Ten fresh frozen cadaveric specimens were included. The talar surface area was outlined utilizing a marker. The talus was removed to measure the medial to lateral length and posterior to anterior length using a flexible ruler. A skin incision was made posterior to the medial malleolus. The incision was deepened through the flexor retinaculum. Dissection was carried between the posterior tibial and flexor digitorum longus tendons through the posterior tibial tendon sheath in order to access the posteromedial ankle joint. The posterior tibiofibular ligament should remain intact. A Hintermann distractor was then inserted to distract the ankle joint. The average articular cartilage visible from medial to lateral was 1.90 (68.6%) centimeters, while from posterior to anterior was 2.00 (43.6%) centimeters. Medial malleolar osteotomy is often required to visualize posteromedial talar osteochondral defects that are difficult to visualize with standard anterior ankle arthroscopy. Our study suggests that the modified posteromedial approach between the posterior tibial and flexor digitorum longus tendons and utilizing a Hintermann distractor allows for visualization of common posterior and central-medial lesions. When considering the anatomic 9-zone grid scheme proposed by Raikin et al, zone 4, 7, and 8 lesions can be assessed with this approach. A clinical study should be undertaken to evaluate the morbidity of this approach.     

Corrective arthrodeses and osteotomies for post-traumatic hindfoot malalignment: indications, techniques, results

Hindfoot malunions after fractures of the talus and calcaneus lead to severe disability and pain. Corrective osteotomies and arthrodeses aim at functional rehabilitation and reduction of pain resulting from post-traumatic arthritis, eccentric loading and impingement due to hindfoot malunion. Preoperative analysis should include the three-dimensional outline of the malunion, the presence of post-traumatic arthritis, non-union, or infection, the extent of any avascular necrosis or comorbidities. In properly selected, compliant patients with intact cartilage cover little or no, AVN, and adequate bone quality, a corrective joint-preserving osteotomy with secondary internal fixation may be carried out. In the majority of cases, realignment is augmented by arthrodesis for post-traumatic arthritis. Fusion is restricted to the affected joint(s) to minimise loss of function. Correction of the malunion is achieved by asymmetric joint resection, distraction and structural bone grafting with corrective osteotomies for severe axial malalignment. Bone grafting is also needed after resection of a fibrous non-union, sclerotic or necrotic bone. Numerous clinical studies have shown substantial functional improvement and high subjective satisfaction rates from pain reduction after corrective osteotomies and fusions for post-traumatic hindfoot malalignment. This article reviews the indications, techniques and results of corrective surgery after talar and calcaneal malunions and nonunions based on an easy-to-use classification.