Reduction of cerebrospinal fluid pressure by hypocapnia: changes in cerebral blood volume, cerebrospinal fluid volume, and brain tissue water and electrolytes

The study examined the role of cerebral blood volume (CBV), cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) volume, and brain tissue water and electrolytes on CSF pressure during 4 h of hypocapnia in dogs. Group I (n = 6) was examined during hypocapnia (PaCO2 20 mm Hg), with no intracranial mass being present. Group II (n = 6) was examined with an intracranial mass present (epidural balloon, CSF pressure 35 cm H2O), but no hypocapnia. In group III (n = 6), an intracranial mass was present, and hypocapnia was used to lower CSF pressure. In group I, hypocapnia initially reduced CBV from 3.4 to 2.4 ml. With continued hypocapnia, CBV reexpanded to 3.4 ml by 4 h. CSF volume changed reciprocally, so that intracranial CSF pressure remained constant. In group II, CBV remained steady (2.7 ml), and CSF volume fell only slightly, so that CSF pressure remained elevated. In group III, hypocapnia initially reduced CBV from 2.8 to 2.2 ml, and CSF pressure fell from 35 to 19 cm H2O. With continued hypocapnia, CBV rose to 2.8 ml by 4 h, but CSF volume fell from 6.1 to 5.0 ml, so that CSF pressure remained low. Net intracranial absorption of CSF did not exceed net intracranial CSF production, suggesting that CSF volume fell because hypocapnia improved access of intracranial CSF to spinal sites of CSF reabsorption. Brain tissue composition was not different among groups. The results indicate that hypocapnia lowers elevated CSF pressure initially by lowering CBV. This CSF pressure-lowering effect is sustained (despite reexpansion of CBV) by a further reduction of CSF volume.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Changes in intracranial CSF volume after lumbar puncture and their relationship to post-LP headache.

Post-lumbar puncture (LP) headache may be due to "low CSF pressure", leading to stretching of pain sensitive intracranial structures. The low intracranial pressure is secondary to net loss of intracranial CSF. It has, however, not been possible to measure intracranial CSF volume accurately during life until recently. Intracranial CSF volume can now be measured non-invasively by a MRI technique. The changes in intracranial CSF volume were studied in 20 patients who had LP. Total intracranial CSF volume was reduced in 19 of the 20 patients 24 hours after LP (range -1.8 mls to -158.6 mls). Most of the CSF was lost from the cortical sulci. Very large reductions in intracranial CSF volume were frequently related to post-LP headache but some patients developed headache with relatively little alteration in the intracranial CSF volume. There was not a measurable change in position of the intracranial structures following LP.     

Reduction of cerebrospinal fluid pressure by hypocapnia: changes in cerebral blood volume, cerebrospinal fluid volume and brain tissue water and electrolytes. II. Effects of anesthetics

Part I of these studies (Artru, 1987) examined how cerebral blood volume (CBV), CSF volume, and brain tissue water and electrolytes determined CSF pressure during 4 h of hypocapnia in sedated dogs. The three groups reported were: hypocapnia (PaCO2 20 mm Hg) with no intracranial mass (group 1), intracranial mass (epidural balloon, CSF pressure 35 cm H2O) but no hypocapnia (group 2), and intracranial mass with hypocapnia used to lower CSF pressure (group 3). It was found that in dogs with an intracranial mass (group 3) the CSF pressure-lowering effect of hypocapnia was sustained for 4 h due to improved reabsorption of CSF, decrease of CSF volume to offset reexpansion of CBV and no increase in the sum of CSF volume and CBV. The present Part II studies (groups 4-8) examine the effects of anesthetics on CSF pressure during conditions like those used for group 3, namely, intracranial mass present and hypocapnia used to lower CSF pressure. When halothane or enflurane were used for anesthesia, the CSF pressure-lowering effect of hypocapnia was not sustained. CSF pressure increased from 17.3 +/- 4.7 and 19.0 +/- 4.1 cm H2O, respectively (mean +/- SD), at 10 min to 50.3 +/- 12.8 and 43.2 +/- 12.8 cm H2O, respectively at 4 h. Increase of CSF pressure was associated with increased resistance to reabsorption of CSF (Ra) and increase in the sum of CSF volume and CBV. With halothane the intracranial volume increase was comprised chiefly of cerebral blood and with enflurane the intracranial volume increase was comprised chiefly of CSF. When isoflurane, fentanyl, or thiopental were used for anesthesia, the CSF pressure-lowering effect of hypocapnia was sustained. Ra did not increase and the sum of CBV and CSF volume remained reduced.     

Spontanes Liquorunterdrucksyndrom Klinische, neuroradiologische, nuklearmedizinische und Liquor-Befunde

We report 11 patients with orthostatic headache due to spontaneous intracranial hypotension. Nausea (3 patients) and abducens palsy (2 patients) were the main additional symptoms. Ten patients had CSF pleocytosis (6 to 43 white cells/microliter) and/or increased protein (581 to 1668 mg/l). CT and/or MRI documented bifrontal accentuated subdural hygromas and hematomas in 5 patients. MRI also documented diffuse meningeal gadolinium enhancement in all 4 patients examined, and descent of the brain in one. Cisternography was done in 9 patients and revealed a decreased or absent activity over the convexities and early detection of the tracer in the bladder in all, and a CSF leak at the cervicothoracal junction in 2 patients. Most patients improved with bed rest, increased fluid intake (oral or intravenous), steroids, and/or epidural blood patch. Subdural hematomas increased in 2 patients and have to be drained. Spontaneous intracranial hypotension is due to a CSF leak followed by decreased CSF volume and hydrostatic CSF pressure changes. The locations of the leaks are mainly cervical or at the cervicothoracal junction. MRI always documents diffuse meningeal gadolinium enhancement. Treatment of choice is an epidural blood patch. Surgical treatment may be needed in patients with subdural hematomas or meningeal diverticula. Prognosis is typically good, but subdural hematomas may occasionally lead to an increased intracranial pressure.     

颅内动脉瘤术后并发颅内感染的临床因素分析

目的分析颅内动脉瘤术后并发颅内感染的临床危险因素,探究脑脊液（CSF）指标与血清学指标在颅内感染的临床应用价值。 方法回顾性研究河北省黄骅市人民医院神经外科自2014年8月至2016年3月收治的213例颅内动脉瘤手术患者,按照感染与否分为颅内感染组28例、非颅内感染组185例。对比2组患者的临床基线资料,多因素Logistic回归分析法分析颅内感染的危险因素;对比2组患者的CSF指标、血清学指标并分析其与颅内感染的相关性。 结果多因素Logistic回归分析显示,糖尿病、术中动脉瘤破裂、术中CSF漏、术中出血量和手术时间>4 h为颅内感染的独立危险因素。颅内感染组的CSF水平、血清学指标水平均高于非颅内感染组,且患者的CSF指标、血清学指标与颅内感染呈现正相关。 结论患者的糖尿病、术中动脉瘤破裂、术中CSF漏、术中出血量100 mL以上、手术时间>4 h均为术后颅内感染的危险因素,对患者的CSF指标与血清学指标的检测可协助颅内动脉瘤术后并发颅内感染的诊断。     

腰大池引流治疗术后颅内感染及脑脊液漏

目的探讨持续腰大池引流治疗术后颅内感染及脑脊液漏的疗效。方法回顾性分析2004年2月至2007年10月经持续腰大池脑脊液引流治疗的39例术后颅内感染及脑脊液漏患者的临床资料。这39例患者中，单纯脑脊液切口漏11例，脑脊液鼻漏9例，单纯颅内感染8例，脑脊液切口漏合并颅内感染11例。结果27例行腰大池持续外引流，12例经腰大池外引流并辅以鞘内注入敏感抗生素治疗，均取得满意疗效，无加重及脑疝等严重并发症发生，所有患者均痊愈出院。结论应用持续腰大池引流脑脊液加鞘内注药，配合全身应用敏感抗生素是治疗术后脑脊液漏及颅内感染一种安全、有效的方法。     

Intraoperative values of S-100 protein, myelin basic protein, lactate, and albumin in the CSF and serum of neurosurgical patients

OBJECTIVES: To assess the concentrations of S-100 protein, myelin basic protein (MBP), and lactate, and the (CSF)/serum albumin ratio (Qalb) during intracranial neurosurgical procedures. METHODS: Samples of CSF from 91 patients with various CNS diseases were obtained by aspiration of cisternal CSF at the beginning of surgery (before starting surgical manipulation of the brain) and concentrations of S-100 protein, MBP, and lactate, and Qalb were determined. At the same time blood was sampled for determination of serum S-100 protein concentration. Patients were divided into three groups according to the aetiology of their CNS disease (intracranial haemorrhage, n=11; benign intracranial mass lesion, n=52; malignant neoplastic disease, n=28). Radiological and intraoperative characteristics were documented. RESULTS: In each of these three groups median values of all four CSF variables measured were raised. The occurrence of brain oedema and a midline shift correlated significantly with raised concentrations of MBP and Qalb. Breaching of the arachnoid layer, documented at surgery for benign lesions, correlated with higher concentrations of MBP, lactate, CSF S-100 protein, and Qalb. CONCLUSIONS: Intraoperative values of S-100 protein, MBP, lactate, and Qalb are increased in patients with intracranial haemorrhage, benign intracranial mass lesion, and malignant neoplastic disease. Breaching of the arachnoid layer and oedema is associated with higher concentrations of some of the aforementioned proteins. These biochemical data can serve as a basis for further research into CSF specific proteins.     

The effect of intracarotid perfusion of cerebrospinal fluid from patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage on cerebrovascular reactivity in rats

Cerebrovascular resistance was measured in 10 rats with increasing dosages of 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). The internal carotid artery was perfused at constant flow with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with ruptured intracranial aneurysms, and dose-response curves to 10 mu 1 boluses of 5-HT were compared with similar dose-response curves obtained during perfusion with Krebs' solution and with normal CSF (CSF-N). CSF from patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (CSF-SAH) produced increased sensitivity to 5-HT.     

Incidence and effectiveness of cerebrospinal fluid shunts in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1956-1981

In the period 1956 through 1981, 129 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt operations were performed on 50 patients who were residents of Olmsted County, Minn. The overall average annual age- and sex-adjusted incidence of initial CSF shunts during this 26-year period was 2.3 per 100,000 person-years. Within 5-year calendar time intervals, the average annual incidence rates per 100,000 person-years ranged from 0.8 (1956-1960) to 4.6 (1971-1975). There were 4 shunt-related deaths, 1 due to a CSF shunt infection and 3 due to acute increases in intracranial pressure. In this analysis of shunt procedures in a defined population, the diagnostic indications and changes over time in CSF shunting devices are also described.     

自发性脑脊液鼻漏8例临床分析

目的研究自发性脑脊液鼻漏诊断和治疗的方法。方法回顾性分析8例自发性脑脊液鼻漏病例的临床资料,包括患者的临床表现、体重指数、腰穿压力、影像学检查、手术方式以及随访的结果。结果1例患者经过保守治疗后痊愈。7例患者接受了手术治疗,其中有2例患者接受了2次手术,5例1次性手术成功。8例患者术后随访6月-15年,均无复发。结论手术结合综合治疗自发性脑脊液鼻漏可取得较满意疗效,准确的术前定位、合适的手术方式以及术后对颅内压的控制是治疗脑脊液鼻漏成功的关键。     

脑室-腹腔分流术后颅内感染的处理经验

目的总结脑室-腹腔分流术后颅内感染的临床特点和治疗效果。方法 2003年1月至2009年1月行脑室-腹腔分流术治疗脑积水患者254例,其中11例分流术后并发颅内感染。对颅内感染者在脑脊液细菌培养和药敏试验结果出来前,通过腰椎穿刺置管鞘内注射可在鞘内应用的广谱抗生素,并持续引流感染的脑脊液;细菌培养和药敏试验结果出来后,选用敏感抗生素鞘内注射;10例病情严重者拔除分流装置,行脑室外引流。结果 11例患者,1例经腰椎穿刺置管鞘内注射抗生素后治愈,10例不断调整引流装置同时脑室内注入抗生素后治愈。结论脑脊液脑室外引流、鞘内或脑室内注射抗生素,以及必要时拔除分流装置是治疗脑室-腹腔分流术后颅内感染的主要措施。     

采用立体定向MRI技术对健康中国人颅内脑脊液体积的研究

目的利用立体定向MRI数据和计算机技术对健康中国人颅内脑脊液体积进行研究。方法对120例健康成年自愿者按立体定向基线行轴位全脑MRI扫描，并利用计算机技术对其颅内脑脊液进行识别、分割、提取、匹配与测量，并对脑室进行三维重建。结果男性脑脊液体积为（163．89±34．98）mm^3，女性为（149．71±33．91）mm^3，两者之间无显著性差异（P〉0．05）；60岁以上者脑脊液体积较60岁以下者明显增加（P〈0．05）。重建的脑室系统结构清晰，表面光滑，可任意角度观察。结论脑脊液体积与性别无关，而与年龄有关，当年龄大于60岁时。脑脊液体积开始增加。     

The Effect of Intracarotid Perfusion of Cerebrospinal Fluid from Patients with Subarachnoid Hemorrhage on Cerebrovascular Reactivity in Rats

Abstract

Cerebrovascular resistance was measured in 10 rats with increasing dosages of 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). The internal carotid artery was perfused at constant flow with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with ruptured intracranial aneurysms, and dose-response curves to 10 μ 1 boluses of 5-HT were compared with similar dose-response curves obtained during perfusion with Krebs' solution and with nonnal CSF (CSF-N). CSF from patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (CSF-SAH) produced increased sensitivity to 5-HT.     

硬脑膜连续缝合技术在神经内镜经鼻手术切除颅内肿瘤后高流量脑脊液漏修补中的作用

目的探讨硬脑膜连续缝合技术在神经内镜扩大经鼻手术切除颅内肿瘤后高流量脑脊液漏修补中的作用。方法回顾性分析2018年7月至2020年1月郑州大学第一附属医院神经外科采用神经内镜扩大经鼻手术切除颅内肿瘤患者的临床资料,共106例。所有患者术中均发生高流量脑脊液漏(Esposito分级3级),其中48例重建颅底过程中联合应用硬脑膜连续缝合技术(硬脑膜缝合组),58例未联合硬脑膜连续缝合技术(硬脑膜未缝合组)。比较两组患者脑脊液漏的修补时间、术后脑脊液漏和其他并发症的发生情况。结果硬脑膜缝合组脑脊液漏的修补时间为(63.0±7.5)min,与硬脑膜未缝合组的(31.0±6.2)min比较,差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。术后硬脑膜缝合组与硬脑膜未缝合组分别有2.1%(1/48)和19.0%(11/58)的患者发生脑脊液漏,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);分别有4.2%(2/48)和8.6%(5/58)的患者发生颅内感染,差异无统计学意义(P=0.599)。术后行腰大池引流术、第2次脑脊液漏修补术及发生严重水电解紊乱的比率,两组比较差异均无统计学意义(均P>0.05)。106例患者的随访时间为6~12个月,12例术后发生脑脊液漏的患者中,硬脑膜未缝合组中的1例复发颅咽管瘤患者因下丘脑反应和颅内感染死亡,其余患者预后良好。结论经鼻神经内镜硬脑膜连续缝合技术修补颅内肿瘤切除术后高流量脑脊液漏虽然延长了手术时间,但可有效降低术后脑脊液漏的发生率,且不增加相关并发症的发生率。     

Cerebrospinal fluid and arterial lactate, pyruvate and acid-base balance in patients with intracranial hemorrhages.

Lactate and pyruvate concentrations and acid-base balance in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and arterial blood were determined in patients with intracranial hemorrhages (28 subarachnoid hemorrhages and 15 intracerebral hemorrhages). A greater increase in CSF lactate and lactate-pyruvate ratio (L/P ratio) was observed in patients with impairment of consciousness, focal neurological deficits, poor prognosis, or CSF pressures higher than 300 mm H2O. A combination of CSF lactate greater than 2.5 mM per liter, L/P ration above 20, bicarbonate less than 20.4 mEq per liter, pH below 7.276, or arterial PCO2 below 31.5 mm Hg seems to indicate poor prognosis from intracranial hemorrhage. The mechanism of hyperventilation in acute cerebrovascular diseases and of CSF pH regulation in acid-base disturbances was also discussed.     

Cerebrospinal fluid vasopressin in neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Vasopressin was determined in CSF and plasma of 243 patients with different neurological and psychiatric disorders, including control patients. CSF vasopressin was significantly higher in patients with high pressure hydrocephalus, intracranial tumour, benign intracranial hypertension, intracranial haemorrhage, ischaemic stroke, and craniocerebral trauma. In patients with primary degenerative dementia, CSF vasopressin was lower than in control patients. Among patients with psychiatric disorders, CSF vasopressin was increased in manic patients, while in patients with depression CSF concentration of this hormone did not differ from that found in controls. However, an increase in CSF vasopressin level was found in patients recovering from a depression. The clinical significance of changes in CSF vasopressin concentrations in groups of patients with neurological and psychiatric disorders is still unknown.     

Pneumocephalus leading to the diagnosis of cerebrospinal fluid leak and esophageal perforation after cervical spine surgery

Pneumocephalus is a collection of air within in the intracranial cavity, most commonly seen following traumatic injury or cranial surgeries. Esophageal injury and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak are rare complications that may occur following anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF). We present a novel case of pneumocephalus arising from unrestricted leakage of CSF via coincident esophageal injury and durotomy in a patient who underwent an ACDF after trauma. A 21-year-old man presented to an outside hospital with C5/C6 subluxation, complete spinal cord injury, and quadriplegia from a motor vehicle accident. He underwent an ACDF, during which a CSF leak was observed. He was then transferred to our institution for rehabilitation and tracheostomy placement 1 week after the ACDF surgery. Following the tracheostomy, the patient developed intractable fevers and nonspecific symptoms. A CT scan demonstrated frontal pneumocephalus without mass effect. Air was found in the retropharyngeal space. There were no accumulations of CSF in the neck. Extravasation of contrast around instrumentation at C5/C6 on a cine esophagogram demonstrated an esophageal perforation at that level. Pneumocephalus may form when large volumes of CSF escape from the intracranial space and air is drawn into the space by the negative pressure. In this unusual case, the esophageal perforation promoted the formation of the pneumocephalus. Treatment included closure of both defects, disrupting the suspected communication between the intracranial space and the esophagus.     

Second-half-of-the-day headache as a manifestation of spontaneous CSF leak

Orthostatic headache related to spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak (CSF) appears within 2 h of sitting or standing in most patients. However, longer delays to headache onset have been observed, including some patients who have headaches only in the afternoon. The objective of this study is to describe second-half-of-the-day headache as a manifestation of spontaneous CSF leak and propose potential mechanisms. From 142 patients evaluated by one of us (B.M.) during a 10-year period for spontaneous intracranial hypotension, those describing headache occurring exclusively in the afternoon accompanied by typical changes of intracranial hypotension on head MRI were retrospectively identified and their medical records reviewed. Five patients met our pre-defined inclusion criteria (5/142, 3.5%; three women; mean age 50 years). Second-half-of-the-day headache was an initial symptom of intracranial hypotension in one patient, spontaneously evolved from prior all-day orthostatic headache in one patient, and was a residual or recurrent symptom after epidural blood patch in three patients. Head MRI changes due to intracranial hypotension were decreased during second-half-of-the-day-headache compared to typical all-day orthostatic headache in three out of four patients. The timing of second-half-of-the-day headache and orthostatic headache in the clinical course of patients with spontaneous CSF leaks and related MRI findings suggest that second-half-of-the-day headache is likely a manifestation of a slowed or slow-flow CSF leak.     

Cerebrospinal fluid neurohypophysial peptides in benign intracranial hypertension.

The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of arginine vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (OT) were investigated both in patients with benign intracranial hypertension and in age and sex matched controls. Twenty eight lumbar punctures were performed on 15 patients with benign intracranial hypertension as part of their routine investigation and therapy. All patients had raised intracranial pressure (27.4, SE 1.7 cm.CSF). CSF AVP levels were significantly elevated in benign intracranial hypertension (2.1, SE 0.3 pmol/l) compared with controls (0.7, SE 0.1 pmol/l, p less than 0.001) but CSF OT concentrations were similar in both groups. CSF osmolality and plasma AVP and osmolality were identical in patients and controls. There was no correlation between CSF AVP concentration and intracranial pressure. The selective elevation of AVP in CSF may be of importance in the pathogenesis of raised intracranial pressure in benign intracranial hypertension.