Distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap for chronic calcaneal osteomyelitis in diabetic patients

Chronic calcaneal osteomyelitis is a difficult surgical problem, especially in diabetic patients. After aggressive surgical eradication of nonviable soft tissue and infected bone, there will be a large soft-tissue and bony defect. A distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap including the sural nerve and a midline cuff of the gastrocnemius muscle can be useful for covering the defect. This flap is designed on the proximal half of the posterior calf and has an adequate blood supply derived from retrograde perfusion of the vascular axis of the sural nerve to the musculocutaneous perforators of the gastrocnemius muscle. The patency of the peroneal artery should be confirmed by Doppler ultrasound or angiography before surgery. If there are any vascular problems, this flap will not be used to avoid complications resulting from poor flap circulation. This approach has been used for 11 diabetic patients in the past 2 years. All flaps survived completely and all wounds healed uneventfully. The authors found that the flap was reliable and technically simple to design and execute. This 1-stage procedure not only preserves the major arteries of the injured leg but has also proved valuable for filling bony defect and treating bony infection because it provides a well-vascularized muscle fragment. Compared with other tissue transfers, this flap has special characteristics for use on diabetic patients with chronic calcaneal osteomyelitis.     

The distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap for foot reconstruction.

Finding appropriate soft-tissue to cover a wound located over the middle or distal portion of the foot can be challenging. A distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap including the sural nerve and a midline cuff of the gastrocnemius muscle can be used for this purpose. This flap is designed on the proximal third of the posterior calf and is nourished in a retrograde manner by the lower peroneal septocutaneous perforators, through the vascular axis of the sural nerve to the musculocutaneous perforators of the gastrocnemius muscle. Between October of 2002 and January of 2004, this flap was applied in nine individuals, including four diabetic patients. The skin defects all resulted from trauma, osteomyelitis or chronic ulcer, and combined with bone or tendon exposure. One flap developed distal necrosis. The other flaps survived fully and provided good contour. In our series, diabetes mellitus seemed not to compromise the vascularity of the flap. The distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap is very useful for lower limb reconstruction, particularly for the foot, because of its long vascular pedicle and the availability of the skin portion of the proximal calf based on direct branches between the musculocutaneous perforators and the neurovascular axis of the sural nerve. This is an important variant of the sural neurocutaneous flap and it appears to be a good alternative to free flaps for resurfacing the foot.     

Distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap for treatment of wounds of the distal third of the leg and ankle with exposed internal hardware

Soft tissue reconstruction of the distal third of the lower limb with exposure of the internal hardware is a challenging problem with several potential complications, such as exposure of the fracture line, fracture instability and bacterial contamination. The treatment of these lesions usually consists of substitution of the internal hardware with external fixation devices and further flap coverage. We propose a different reconstructive approach, characterized by harvesting a sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap on the exposed internal hardware once a sterile ground has been obtained. Four patients were retrospectively analyzed. Soft tissue reconstruction was achieved in all cases. In one case hardware removal was necessary for complete healing. The sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap is a safe alternative to other pedicled and free flaps. Moreover, it allows direct coverage of internal fixators, thus completing the reconstruction in less time. This flap fits best to the morphology of the wound and internal hardware, leaving the main vascular trunk of the leg intact and at the same time providing a reliable vascular supply.     

Distally based sural neurocutaneous pedicle flap

The distally based sural neurocutaneous flap is technically simple and characterised by limited morbidity. It is one of the therapeutic alternatives for the coverage of small ormiddle-sized soft-tissue loss in the distal third of the leg, at the level of the ankle and of the heel. This flap is based on a retrograde flux originating from the superficial sural artery. It depends on the perforating arteries originating from the peroneal artery. It can be harvested as a skin paddle or as an island flap. It will not lead to major artery sacrifice. It is a reliable flap, which can be performed on diabetic as well as arteritic patients. Its best indication is for the coverage of heel decubitus ulcer. Finally, it can be used for management of soft-tissue defects, especially related to osteomylitis with the filling of bone cavities.     

远端蒂腓肠神经营养血管肌皮瓣的临床应用

目的报道应用远端蒂腓肠神经营养血管肌皮瓣修复填充小腿下段及足踝部创伤性软组织缺损、骨髓炎创腔的临床效果。方法以远端蒂腓肠神经营养血管肌皮瓣修复小腿下段及足踝部因创伤致组织缺损、骨髓炎22例,皮瓣面积最大17 cm×15 cm,最小10 cm×8 cm,肌瓣最大为10．0 cm×7．0 cm×2．0 cm,最小为6．0 cm×5．0 cm×1．0 cm。结果修复小腿下段16例皆获成功,伤口Ⅰ期愈合。修复足踝部6例,皮瓣边缘坏死3例,换药治愈。肌皮瓣坏死1/4,行植皮者1例。肌皮瓣坏死1/3行邻近筋膜皮瓣治愈1例。结论应用远端蒂腓肠神经营养血管肌皮瓣修复小腿下段及足踝部创伤性软组织缺损、骨髓炎创腔是有效可行的,但对携带的肌瓣究竟切取多大面积是安全的以及肌瓣的血运机制等问题仍有待进一步研究。     

Distally based fasciocutaneous sural flap for foot reconstruction: a retrospective review of 10 years experience

BACKGROUND: The treatment of soft tissue defects of the foot is a problem mainly connected to the thickness of the coverage tissues, to the poor circulation, and to the frequent involvement of muscle, tendon, and bone. The authors present their experience with the sural flap, also in some particular cases. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The authors treated 33 patients for small- and medium-size defects of the foot, caused by work, home, and road accidents, and by venous or diabetic ulcers. In all cases, the flap was cut in its fasciocutaneous variant; an extension of the sole portion of fascia was added in 5 patients. The flap was transferred under a subcutaneous tunnel in 10 cases, with an open incision in 20 cases, and in 3 cases the pedicle was kept external for 4 weeks, then resected. RESULTS: One patient showed a complete necrosis of the flap and another showed a superficial necrosis preserving the deep fascia; in the remaining 31 cases, the flap incorporated without any major complication. The flap provided proper coverage of the defects from both an aesthetic and functional point of view as evidenced clinically and through a baropedographic test. CONCLUSION: The advantages of this flap include: dissection is fast and easy, it is not necessary to sacrifice important arterial pedicle or muscular units as it can be used in traumatized limbs without further damage to main arteries, and a wide rotation arc is possible. Disadvantages include the sacrifice of the sural nerve and the covering of the donor region with skin grafts.     

小腿远端蒂穿支皮瓣修复足踝创面的蒂部改进

目的 介绍将小腿穿支蒂皮瓣的“孤立穿支蒂”改进为“穿支筋膜皮下蒂”的手术技术,探讨改善皮瓣静脉回流、提高临床可靠性的应用效果. 方法 依据小腿后侧穿支血管的位置,设计偏心的螺旋桨样岛状皮瓣.穿支血管轴点近侧的皮瓣头部(大桨)切为筋膜皮瓣,轴点与受区创面间的皮瓣尾部(小桨)切为真皮下血管网皮瓣,至少保留穿支血管蒂一侧1/4象限的筋膜皮下组织,形成“穿支筋膜皮下蒂”.自2008年1月至2010年12月,临床应用12例,旋转180°修复足踝创面.术后观测皮瓣肿胀程度和成活及功能恢复情况. 结果 本组胫后动脉穿支7例,腓动脉穿支5例,近侧筋膜皮瓣(大桨)面积4 cm×8 cm ～6 cm×18 cm,远侧真皮下血管网皮瓣(小桨)面积2 cm×2 cm～4 cm×4 cm.术后皮瓣肿胀较轻,按顾玉东法评定,9例低于2级,2例为3级,仅最大的1例为4级,皮瓣远端有部分浅层坏死.平均随访13个月,创面治愈.患者恢复行走和穿鞋功能. 结论 采用保留部分筋膜皮下组织的穿支蒂部改进法,在增加皮瓣静脉回流通道、降低术后肿胀程度、提高临床安全性的同时,皮瓣仍能获得180°的平滑旋转,效果优良,值得推广.     

Versatility of the distally based superficial sural flap for reconstruction of lower leg and foot in children

Twenty children are presented after undergoing a distally based superficial sural flap for coverage of defects at the lower leg and foot. The age of the patients was between 1 and 12 years. Fifteen patients had trauma to the lower leg, with eight of them having associated injuries. Three had postburn contracture and two had pressure sore. In 14 cases, the flap was used as a fasciocutaneous flap, whereas in six cases it was used as a fascial flap covered with a skin graft. The flaps were used to cover the defects from the dorsum of the foot distally up to the mid third of tibia proximally. The mean follow-up was for a period of 2 years. Even though free tissue transfer is reliable and safe for the reconstruction of major leg injuries in children, the distally based superficial sural flap has the advantage of being easy to perform, with short operating time, minimal donor side morbidity, and preservation of major arteries of the leg.     

The reverse sural fasciomusculocutaneous "mega-high" flap: a study of 20 consecutive flaps for lower-limb reconstruction

The reverse sural artery flap was initially described as a fasciocutaneous flap and has become an acceptable technique of lower-limb reconstruction. The flap was recently modified to include a midline gastrocnemius muscle cuff around the sural pedicle in the upper part of the leg, and hence improving its blood supply. Large lower-limb defects require "mega" flaps (including the whole width of the calf) harvested "high" all the way up to the popliteal fossa. The following study was designed to answer the following question: Is this "mega-high" reverse sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap reliable? A total of 20 consecutive male patients with large lower-limb defects who were reconstructed with this flap were included. The skin of the whole width of the upper calf (extending 2-3 cm below the popliteal fossa crease line) was harvested without delay in every case. Primary wound healing of the flap was noted in all patients confirming its reliability. Indications and technical hints to ensure successful reconstruction are discussed.     

Distally based perforator sural flaps for foot and ankle reconstruction

Distally based perforator sural flaps from the posterolateral or posteromedial lower leg aspect are initially a neurofasciocutaneous flap that can be transferred reversely to the foot and ankle region with no need to harvest and sacrifice the deep major artery. These flaps are supplied by a perforating artery issued from the deep peroneal artery or the posterior tibial artery, and the chain-linked adipofascial neurovascular axis around the sural/saphenous nerve. It is a versatile and reliable technique for soft-tissue reconstruction of the heel and ankle region with 180-degrees rotation. In this paper, we present its developing history, vascular basis, surgical techniques including flap design and elevation, flap variations in pedicle and component, surgical indications, and illustrative case reports with different perforating vessels as pivot points for foot and ankle coverage.     

Single-stage reconstruction of Achilles tendon injuries and distal lower extremity soft tissue defects with the reverse sural fasciocutaneous flap.

OBJECTIVE: Complex wounds of the lower extremity with concomitant Achilles tendon injury can be difficult to reconstruct. We favour the reverse sural artery fasciocutaneous flap because in a single step, flap elevation affords Achilles tendon exposure and adequate soft tissue for reconstruction. It also provides significant time and resource savings for both plastic and orthopaedic surgical teams. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Our case series involved four consecutive patients who presented with Achilles tendon injuries and concomitant complex soft tissue defects. The reverse sural artery flap was planned in conjunction with the orthopaedic service to facilitate their approach for Achilles tendon repair. Outcome was measured as flap survival, time for flap elevation and total operative time. RESULTS: Partial flap loss occurred in one patient. The Achilles repair was performed successfully in all cases. The mean time for flap elevation and Achilles exposure was 43 min (range, 37-52 min). Total operative time was 287 min (range, 211-347 min). CONCLUSION: The reverse sural artery fasciocutaneous flap is a durable, efficient option for simultaneous Achilles tendon reconstruction and wound coverage. Simple flap elevation provides necessary exposure of the Achilles tendon for repair while the flap itself provides ample soft tissue with a reliable blood supply. In our experience, the reverse sural artery fasciocutaneous flap affords a practical method to address two reconstructive challenges in a single procedure.     

Distally based sural flap in treatment of chronic venous ulcers

The treatment of venous ulcers of the leg often fails to heal because venous ulcers are mostly associated with severe lipodermatosclerosis. These complicated ulcers may require correction of local hemodynamics, excision of ulcer with surrounding lipodermatosclerotic skin, and replacement of the defect with healthy tissue. We present our experience with the use of the distally based sural flaps for the reconstruction of soft-tissue defects of the distal region of the lower limb in patients with chronic venous ulcer. Between 2001 and 2003, 12 patients with venous ulceration were treated with distally based sural flaps. At operation, the ulcer and its surrounding lipodermatosclerotic skin were excised. The defects after excision ranged from 3 x 3 to 11 x 17 cm. The distally based sural artery flap was inset within the defect. In all patients, the flap survived completely, and in only 1 patient, distal venous congestion was seen and was treated successfully with leeches. There was donor site skin graft loss in 2 patients. Two flaps had minor local complications that healed with local wound care. No recurrent ulcers were identified after average 19.7 months. In conclusion, the distally based sural flaps can be used reliably for treatment of venous ulcers. Our approach in treatment of chronic venous ulcers improves venous hemodynamics and provides local flap alternative that should be considered prior to a free-flap transfer for closure of the defect.     

The reversal sural artery neurocutaneous island flap in composite lower extremity wound reconstruction.

Reconstruction of the lower third of the leg and the forefoot remains a challenge due to a lack of regional muscle units and minimal subcutaneous tissues. Reverse island flaps have been applied to similar reconstructive problems in the upper extremity. Recently, the reverse sural artery neurocutaneous island flap has been utilized to reconstruct complex wounds of the lower extremity and forefoot in young and middle-aged individuals. We present our use of the flap in a patient cohort 65 years of age or older. Unique among this group was the high prevalence of diabetes and peripheral vascular disease. Nonetheless, the reverse sural artery neurocutaneous island flap proved a safe and reliable means of achieving wound closure.     

腓肠神经血管皮瓣修复足跟区皮肤软组织缺损

[目的] 探讨远端蒂腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复足跟区的特点.[方法] 2002年6月～2008年7月行远端蒂腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复足跟区皮肤软组织缺损58例,其中创面合并有足跟部空洞形成者10例,创面位于跟底行皮神经吻合13例,皮瓣面积8 cm×4 cm～20 cm×15 cm,皮瓣的切取采用先显露穿支血管后游离皮瓣的方法.[结果] 本组58例皮瓣中,46例完全存活,12例远端浅表或部分坏死,经换药、Ⅱ期缝合或植皮后创面愈合.经术后1～34个月随访,皮瓣均外观较满意,感染控制且无复发,无慢性溃疡及压疮形成,行走功能好.[结论] 远端蒂腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复足跟区创面具有血运丰富,成活面积大,手术简单,成功率高,可重建保护性感觉的优点,大部分足跟区皮肤软组织缺损可用该皮瓣修复.     

远端蒂指背皮神经营养血管皮瓣修复指腹创伤缺损

目的介绍应用指背皮神经营养血管皮瓣修复指腹创伤缺损的临床经验,并探讨改善静脉回流的方法。方法自2004年3月至2005年10月,共急诊应用远端蒂指背皮神经营养血管皮瓣,修复指腹创面大于2 cm者18例。旋转轴点在近侧指间关节(PIP)平面以近0．5 cm,皮瓣面积2 cm×2 cm～3 cm×4 cm,皮神经筋膜蒂长2～3 cm。均将指背皮神经与指固有神经吻接,并在旋转点远侧1 cm处结扎指背浅静脉。结果术后皮瓣均有不同程度的静脉淤血肿胀,8例皮瓣出现张力水泡。13例随访超过6个月,皮瓣恢复保护性感觉。结论指背皮神经营养血管皮瓣修复指腹创伤缺损,方法简单,成活可靠。在蒂部远侧结扎指背浅静脉干阻断倒灌和在末端旷置敞开,均能改善静脉回流,减轻皮瓣肿胀。     

Reverse sural artery flap: a reliable alternative for foot and ankle soft tissue reconstruction

European Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery & Traumatology - Soft tissue defects of foot and ankle are challenging due to the susceptibility of the area to trauma and the complexity of the region....     

Distally based sural neuro-fasciocutaneous island flap to cover tissue loss in the distal third of the leg

The distally based sural neurofasciocutaneous flap is based on the vascular contribution furnished by the arterial network that accompanies the sural nerve and on its neurocutaneous perforating branches. This flap provides a solution that can be effectively used for various reconstructions in the distal third of the lower extremity, thus offering a valid alternative to solutions involving microsurgical repair. The main advantages of this flap are the need for a single operation, limited donor area morbidity, and the structural characteristics of the soft tissue of the flap, which makes it ideal for covering defects in this region. The authors present their clinical experience using this technique.     

Vascularized medial sural cutaneous nerve based on the superficial sural artery: a reliable nerve graft

The sural nerve is nourished by the single superficial sural artery proximally, but distally receives multiple contributions from musculocutaneous and fasciocutaneous perforators of the posterior tibial and peroneal (fibular) arteries. The prevalence of this proximal arterial supply is largely unknown. The authors report a large anatomic study (n = 56), together with two clinical cases, to assess the incidence and potential suitability of the sural nerve as a vascularized nerve graft. Dissections were performed on 6 fresh cadavers injected with Microfil dye and on 22 preserved cadavers. The superficial sural artery was present in 91 percent of the dissections. The mean diameter of this extrinsic artery was 1.5 mm. The mean percentage of neural tissue within the sural nerve in the region where it is supplied by the superficial sural artery was 62 percent compared to 34 percent distally, where it was supplied by the posterior tibial and fibular (peroneal) arteries. This anatomic difference provides a solid rationale for preferential utilization of the proximal portion of the nerve, as opposed to its distal segment. When a vascularized nerve graft is indicated, the proximally-based sural nerve appears to offer clear advantages, compared to other vascularized nerve grafts.