Peripheral skin temperature responses to hot and cold suggestions

10 male Ss, screened for hypnotic susceptibility, were hypnotized in 1 experimental session and given “method acting” instructions in another experimental session. Suggestions designed to increase and to decrease peripheral skin temperature, which was continuously monitored throughout each session, were administered under both conditions. The resulting data were analyzed to determine the effects of hypnosis, suggestions, and time. A significant time effect and a significant hypnotic-time interaction were found, but there was no difference due to the specific suggestions. When hypnotized, Ss tended to maintain a constant temperature throughout the suggestion period, while, when given “method acting” instructions, peripheral temperature tended to increase.     

Hypnosis for Postradiation Xerostomia in Head and Neck Cancer Patients: A Pilot Study

Xerostomia, the sensation of dry mouth, affects almost all patients who undergo radiotherapy for cancer in the head and neck area. Current therapies for xerostomia are inadequate, and the condition negatively impacts the quality of life. This prospective observational pilot study aimed to evaluate whether hypnosis could improve salivation and decrease xerostomia. Twelve patients with xerostomia after radiotherapy for head and neck cancer were assessed for severity of xerostomia symptoms and sialometry. They then received a single hypnosis session with specific suggestions to increase salivation. The session was recorded on a compact disk (CD), and the participants were instructed to listen to it twice a day for one month. Sialometry was repeated immediately after hypnosis. Validated xerostomia questionnaires were completed at one, four, and 12 weeks after hypnosis. A substantial overall improvement was reported by eight patients at 12 weeks (66%). The saliva flow rate increased on sialometry in nine patients following hypnosis (75%). There was no correlation between the magnitude of changes in the measured saliva flow rate and changes in subjective measures (Spearman's correlation coefficient r = 0.134). Symptomatic improvement significantly correlated with the number of times the patients listened to the hypnosis CD (r = 0.714, P = 0.009). No adverse events were reported. The data from this small observational trial suggest that hypnosis may be an effective treatment for xerostomia. Confirmation in a larger randomized and controlled investigation is warranted.     

Physiological Responsiveness During Hypnosis

4 physiological measures — electromyogram, respiration rate, heart rate, and skin conductance — were recorded for 11 high and 11 low hypnotizable Ss. It was hypothesized (a) that physiological responsiveness during hypnosis would vary depending on the nature of the task instructions, and (b) that high hypnotizable Ss would show more physiological responsiveness than low hypnotizable Ss. The first hypothesis was substantiated across all 4 measures. Only heart rate levels supported the second hypothesis. The results are discussed as they relate to the 2 hypotheses and to future research.     

The disappearing hypnotist: The use of simulating subjects to evaluate how subjects perceive experimental procedures

This study examines the effects of a temporary power failure while S was hypnotized during a tape-recorded session. It was necessary that the power failure be perceived by S as an accident and not as an experimental deception. In a previous study (Orne & Evans, 1966), Ss simulating hypnosis with a “blind” E continued faking throughout the “power failure,” apparently suspecting they were being observed. Therefore, no conclusions could be drawn about the behavior of the hypnotized Ss. After the procedure was modified, simulating Ss ceased faking as soon as the hypnotist left the room, thereby demonstrating that they believed that a power failure had actually occurred and that they were not being watched. Hypnotized Ss spontaneously, although slowly and with subjective difficulty, terminated hypnosis by themselves. The spontaneous behavior of the hypnotized Ss in the absence of a hypnotist seems inconsistent with predictions based on motivational or role-taking theories of hypnosis.     

Distinctive mental contexts in long-term memory

This series of investigations began with the strikingly detailed recall, by a trained hypnotic S, of a dream experienced under hypnosis over 2 years before. The significance of distinctive mental contexts for long-term memory (LTM) was then pursued systematically in a registration session by having S form several unusual visual images, each associated with a unique hypnotic context under conditions which minimized the possibilities for interference. In the retrieval session 143 days later, hypnotic reinstatement of 3 contexts released the associated image, again in such remarkable detail as to suggest the virtual intactness of well-entrenched memories over very long time spans in the absence of rehearsal. A fourth context, not originally experienced as vividly by S, seemed to have decayed along with its associated image. The role of various elements involved in these distinctive mental contexts was then explored in a number of shorter-term studies using intervals of 2-3 hours. Theoretical and methodological implications of the findings for LTM are discussed.     

Salient findings: Summaries of key findings in the research literature

An experiment was performed to investigate the relationship of hypnosis and posthypnotic amnesia to retroactive inhibition. 4 groups of 10 Ss each learned lists of adjectives in a retroactive inhibition paradigm. 2 of the groups learned the intervening list while they were hypnotized. Ss of one of these were given instructions for posthypnotic amnesia, while Ss of the other were told to recall what they had learned under hypnosis. The savings and recall scores of both these groups for items of the original list were not different from a third group that learned all 3 lists in the waking state. All 3 groups showed substantial retroactive inhibition when compared to a control group that learned no intervening list.     

The possibility of creativity in the active stage of hypnosis

Creative capacity was studied by means of suggestions given to Ss under the condition of active hypnosis. In deep hypnosis it was suggested to S that he was a famous person with a specific talent. In a series of experiments Ss performed under active hypnosis such tasks as drawing, playing musical instruments, and playing chess. The results illustrated that creative processes can be facilitated in Ss capable of deep hypnosis and there is a carry-over of the creative achievements from hypnosis to the waking state. Low hypnotic Ss and control groups did not show improvements in the tasks. A particularly significant increase in creativity was observed when Ss capable of deep hypnosis performed several successive creative tasks while hypnotized. The theoretical and experimental definitions of several new approaches to active hypnosis are also discussed.     

The effects of suggestions of altertness in hypnosis on pupillary response: Report on a single subject

The pupil size of a single S was recorded under 2 types of hypnotic suggestion: alertness instructions and traditional relaxation instructions. It was found that the size of the pupil increased significantly under alertness instructions. This result was taken as further corroboration of the hypothesis that changes in various parameters of arousal apparently associated with hypnosis may be attributed to specifiable characteristics of the instructions used rather than to stable characteristics of the “state” of hypnosis.     

The Conceptual Space of Good and Poor Hypnotic Subjects: A Preliminary Exploration

A form of the Semantic Differential, containing eight concepts related to hypnosis and research, was administered to 12 deeply hypnotizable and 14 nonsusceptible Ss. The good hypnotic Ss evaluated all the concepts more favorably than did the poor hypnotic Ss, with the greatest differential between the two groups occurring on the concept hypnosis. Moreover, the susceptible Ss perceived hypnosis as closer in connotative meaning to such concepts as experiment and professor, then did the nonsusceptible Ss. All differences between the two groups of Ss were of small absolute magnitude, however. Therefore, while the results suggest a relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and attitude toward hypnosis, they appear to preclude the use of the Semantic Differential as a practical predictor of hypnotic susceptibility.     

Attitude differences of volunteers and nonvolunteers and of susceptible and nonsusceptible hypnotic subjects

A form of the Semantic Differential, containing 9 concepts related to hypnosis and research, was administered to 96 hypnotically inexperienced male Ss. The Ss were later asked to volunteer for a hypnotic experiment, and the hypnotic susceptibility of all volunteers (N = 51) was then determined. Semantic Differential responses of volunteers and nonvolunteers and of highly susceptible and unhyp-notizable Ss were compared. Differences between groups, in both comparisons, were generally not statistically significant, a finding which suggests that there is no simple relationship between paper-and-pencil measures of attitudes and volunteering for hypnotic experiments or hypnotizability.     

Task structure as a limiting condition of the occurrence of the treatment effects of simulation instruction in application of the real-simulating model of hypnosis

The hypothesis tested was that lack of task structure facilitates the occurrence of the treatment effects of simulation instruction in application of the real-simulating model of hypnosis. Following appropriate instruction 10 susceptible and 10 insusceptible Ss were tested in 2 sessions by an E who wm blind to the hypnotic susceptibility of Ss. In Session I, Ss were tested on an unstructured (Rorschach) and a structured (Unusual Uses Test) task. In Session II, Ss were administered the same tests again but after hypnosis had been induced and terminated. It was predicted that after receiving instructions to simulate, insusceptible Ss, initially constricted in their response, would change their behavior in Session II in the direction of increased productivity of response, while hypnotic Ss would not, and that the change would be most apparent on the unstructured task. Data supported the hypothesis. In Session II, simulating Ss, but not hypnotic Ss, significantly increased responses on the Rorschach and not on the Uses test. Results suggested that task definition is a limiting condition of the occurrence of the treatment effects of faking instruction.     

A single-treatment method to stop smoking using ancillary self-hypnosis: Final remarics in response to the discussants

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence on suggested amnesia of 2 variables: hypnotic susceptibility and active versus passive learning. 36 chronic schizophrenic patients, 18 low in hypnotic susceptibility and 18 medium or high in hypnotic susceptibility, were randomly assigned to active or passive learning conditions. These Ss were first tested in a hypnosis condition (Day 1) and were retested in a nonhypnosis condition (Day 2) with the presence of waking suggestion. The results for the hypnosis condition indicated that (a) there were no differences between low susceptible and medium-high susceptible Ss on recall amnesia and reversibility (reversible amnesia); (b) recall amnesia and reversibility were significantly higher (p <.01) in passive than active learning conditions; and (c) in all conditions recall was consistently ordered. The results for the nonhypnosis condition were similar, except that reversibility was not significantly higher in passive than active learning conditions. A secondary analysis which partitioned high susceptible (scoring 8-12) from medium susceptible (scoring 5-7) Ss revealed that reversibility was significantly higher in the high susceptible Ss than in the low susceptible Ss; medium susceptible Ss did not differ from either high or low susceptible Ss. The data suggest that the chronic schizophrenics' failure to recall hypnotic events may involve different mechanisms from those which account for posthypnotic amnesia in normal Ss.     

An approach toward isolating factors that influence antisocial conduct in hypnosis

An attempt was made to develop a design to test the influences of three factors on antisocial conduct: the personal relationship with a hypnotist, the S's knowledge that the antisocial act is associated with an experiment, and hypnosis by itself. Four experimental conditions were employed to separate the influence of each factor. The antisocial act was to assist a graduate psychology student in “stealing” a comprehensive graduate examination. The design and procedures were only partially successful in creating the conditions necessary to test the relative influence of the above three factors. The results are discussed in relation to how procedural and methodological problems may be overcome in future studies of this sort. Within the limits of the study, the notion that a personal relationship by itself may be sufficient to induce S's cooperation was supported. However, the experimental manipulations were unsuccessful in completely eliminating the confounding of the knowledge of an experiment from the relationship, and especially hypnosis. It could not be determined whether hypnosis carried any special influencing characteristics because of this difficulty. The ethical problems in antisocial experimentation are discussed along with recommendations for safeguarding S and E     

The Response Criterion Problem in Tests of Hypnosis and Memory

Past experimental research on the effects of hypnosis on memory indicates both that hypnosis produces increases in correct recalls and that hypnosis produces increased vulnerability to misleading information and intrusions in recall. The present paper uses the framework of signal detection theory to account for this pattern of data. It suggests that the effects of hypnosis on memory cannot be ascertained from previous work, because of a general failure to discriminate between effects on the amount of information retrieved from memory and the criterion adopted by Ss for reporting what they remember.     

A comparison of hypnotic and waking recall

This paper presents data from a programmatic series of studies that varied the range of conditions affecting potential increase of recall, memory distortions, and distortions of confidence during and following hypnosis. All the studies used a paradigm that exposed Ss to misleading information some time before memory was tested and applied procedures in the hypnotic setting to analyze memory performance in both recognition and free recall. Results from the program failed to demonstrate any increment in accurate memory due to hypnosis, and the accuracy of memory reports in hypnosis was at times significantly reduced. Further, hypnotic recall was distinctively distorted when false information was introduced after, rather than before hypnosis. Results were discussed in relation to the role hypnotic as opposed to contextual variables may play in explaining Ss' memory test performances, and some legal implications are drawn from the data.     

A note on shock tolerances of real and simulating hypnotic subjects

Prior to the induction of hypnosis, Ss who later in an experiment were actually to be hypnotized selected lower criterion electric shock levels than did Ss who later were only to simulate hypnosis. This is the first quantified objective difference found to date between the behavior of Reals and Simulators.     

Anxiety reduction following exercise and meditation

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the influence of acute physical activity and meditation (noncultic)on state anxiety. Seventy-five adult male volunteers served as Ss with 25 Ss randomly assigned to either an exercise, meditation, or control group. Physical activity was performed at 70% of self-imposed maximal exercise heart rate for 20 minutes by Ss in the exercise group; Ss assigned to the meditation group practiced Benson's Relaxation Response for 20 minutes; and Ss in the control group simply rested quietly in a Lazyboy chair for 20 minutes. State anxiety was measured with the Spielberger Scale, and it was assessed (1)prior to, (2)immediately following, and (3)10 minutes following each treatment. Oxygen consumption, heart rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure were also measured as confirmatory variables under selected conditions. The data were analyzed by means of a two-way repeated measures ANOVA, and this analysis revealed that a significant reduction in anxiety occurred for each treatment. This held for both those Ss falling within the normal range for state anxiety and those Ss regarded as high-anxious. It was also noted that none of the physiological variables differed significantly following the control and meditation treatments. The present evidence suggests that acute physical activity, noncultic meditation, and a quiet rest session are equally effective in reducing state anxiety.     

Bales interaction analysis of hypnosis

Sound films of 2 hypnotists, 4 Ss, and 2 simulators of hypnosis were scored by a modification of Bales' interaction process analysis. Comparisons are presented between the interaction profiles of hypnotists and Ss Both of the hypnotists' transformed interaction percentages fell above the Ss' 95% confidence intervals for agreeing, asking questions, and giving suggestions, and below the Ss' confidence intervals for appearing submissive, giving opinions, showing tension, and giving information. No consistent differences were found between hypnotists and Ss for seeming positive, negative, or dominant, for disagreeing, or for releasing tension. The 2 simulators did not show consistent interaction differences from the real Ss.

Both advantages and limitations in applying Bales' method to hypnosis are discussed. It is concluded that interaction process analysis provides a measure of the overt role-differentiation between S and hypnotist, but does not directly reflect some of the unique features of the hypnotic situation.     

Facilitation of Suggested Sleep After Repeated Performances of the Sleep Suggestibility Test

The sleep suggestibility test (SST) was individually administered on several occasions to a group of 48 young volunteer soldiers. An increasing percentage of Ss attained suggested sleep with each successive SST administration. A subgroup of 25 Ss took the SST 18 times. During the last SST performance, it was possible to transform suggested sleep into somnambulistic hypnosis in 19 Ss. Suggested sleep shows facilitation or increased susceptibility after repeated performances. Additional observations suggest the participation of structural factors in obtaining suggested sleep.