Posthypnotic responding: the relevance of suggestion and test congruence.

Thirty real, hypnotized subjects and 34 simulating, unhypnotized subjects were given either a suggestion to respond when they heard a cue (general) or a suggestion to respond when they heard a cue after hypnosis (posthypnotic). Half the subjects were given the cue during hypnosis (hypnotic test) and half were given it after hypnosis (posthypnotic test). Those who were given the cue during hypnosis were also given it after hypnosis. Between- and within-group comparisons were made of subjects' behavioral responses, latencies to respond, and ratings of experiential compulsion. The findings indicated that subjects' behavior and experience were influenced by congruence between information conveyed by the suggestion and the test about when and how they should respond.     

Posthypnotic responding: The relevance of suggestion and test congruence

Thirty real, hypnotized subjects and 34 simulating, unhypnotized subjects were given either a suggestion to respond when they heard a cue (general) or a suggestion to respond when they heard a cue after hypnosis (posthypnotic). Half the subjects were given the cue during hypnosis (hypnotic test) and half were given it after hypnosis (posthypnotic test). Those who were given the cue during hypnosis were also given it after hypnosis. Between- and within-group comparisons were made of subjects' behavioral responses, latencies to respond, and ratings of experiential compulsion. The findings indicated that subjects' behavior and experience were influenced by congruence between information conveyed by the suggestion and the test about when and how they should respond.     

A comparison of hypnotic and waking recall

This paper presents data from a programmatic series of studies that varied the range of conditions affecting potential increase of recall, memory distortions, and distortions of confidence during and following hypnosis. All the studies used a paradigm that exposed Ss to misleading information some time before memory was tested and applied procedures in the hypnotic setting to analyze memory performance in both recognition and free recall. Results from the program failed to demonstrate any increment in accurate memory due to hypnosis, and the accuracy of memory reports in hypnosis was at times significantly reduced. Further, hypnotic recall was distinctively distorted when false information was introduced after, rather than before hypnosis. Results were discussed in relation to the role hypnotic as opposed to contextual variables may play in explaining Ss' memory test performances, and some legal implications are drawn from the data.     

Anatomy of a hypnotic response: Self-report estimates, actual behavior, and physiological response to the hypnotic suggestion for arm rigidity

The present study closely examines subject response to the arm-rigidity item of the HGSHS:A. Subject behavior, subject self-report, and surface EMG of the biceps and triceps muscles were monitored. Two distinct ways of passing the item were observed and verified by EMG recordings: some subjects (tremblers) exerted muscular effort to bend the arm and kept it rigidly straight. Others (nontremblers) passively kept the arm straight without exerting muscular effort to bend, even though they reported exerting effort to bend their arm. These two behaviorally and physiologically different methods of passing the item support the idea of individual differences in hypnotic responding and suggest that subjects may be using different mental processes to pass the item.     

Some effects of hypnotic suggestion on respiratory function

Several respiratory indices were measured in 10 Ss in 3 states: at rest, with hypnotic suggestion of relaxation, and with hypnotic instructions to imagine muscular work. The same suggestions were given to 10 control 5s in the waking state.

The suggestion of relaxation produced a decrease in pulmonary ventilation in both groups, although it was substantial only in the hypnotic group which started from a higher baseline level. The imagined work produced an increase in ventilation, especially in the hypnotic group. However, in both instances because of compensatory changes in respiratory efficiency the actual uptake of oxygen remained almost unaffected.     

Transference and hypnotic behavior

Patients with anxiety, conversion, or phobic reactions differ from those with obsessive-compulsive reactions in the type of visualization shown in hypnoanalytic regression or revivification.

The former produce visualizations showing a well-rounded picture with logical progression of activity and few symbolic distortions. Symptoms can be traced through various repressed ego states back to their roots and their meanings can thus be understood and explained. The latter, however, produce visualizations lacking a logical progression of activity and showing a somewhat disorganized and poorly-rounded picture. The visualizations seem to obey some of the rules of the preponderant defenses in this neurosis, namely, isolation and undoing. Symbolic distortions are frequent, often recurring intermittently.

Case studies are presented illustrating these differences.     

Fibromyalgia pain and its modulation by hypnotic and non‐hypnotic suggestion: An fMRI analysis

The neuropsychological status of pain conditions such as fibromyalgia, commonly categorized as ‘psychosomatic’ or ‘functional’ disorders, remains controversial. Activation of brain structures dependent upon subjective alterations of fibromyalgia pain experience could provide an insight into the underlying neuropsychological processes. Suggestion following a hypnotic induction can readily modulate the subjective experience of pain. It is unclear whether suggestion without hypnosis is equally effective. To explore these and related questions, suggestions following a hypnotic induction and the same suggestions without a hypnotic induction were used during functional magnetic resonance imaging to increase and decrease the subjective experience of fibromyalgia pain. Suggestion in both conditions resulted in significant changes in reported pain experience, although patients claimed significantly more control over their pain and reported greater pain reduction when hypnotised. Activation of the midbrain, cerebellum, thalamus, and midcingulate, primary and secondary sensory, inferior parietal, insula and prefrontal cortices correlated with reported changes in pain with hypnotic and non‐hypnotic suggestion. These activations were of greater magnitude, however, when suggestions followed a hypnotic induction in the cerebellum, anterior midcingulate cortex, anterior and posterior insula and the inferior parietal cortex. Our results thus provide evidence for the greater efficacy of suggestion following a hypnotic induction. They also indicate direct involvement of a network of areas widely associated with the pain ‘neuromatrix’ in fibromyalgia pain experience. These findings extend beyond the general proposal of a neural network for pain by providing direct evidence that regions involved in pain experience are actively involved in the generation of fibromyalgia pain.     

Effect of hypnotic suggestion on fibromyalgic pain: comparison between hypnosis and relaxation.

The main aims of this experimental study are: (1) to compare the relative effects of analgesia suggestions and relaxation suggestions on clinical pain, and (2) to compare the relative effect of relaxation suggestions when they are presented as "hypnosis" and as "relaxation training". Forty-five patients with fibromyalgia were randomly assigned to one of the following experimental conditions: (a) hypnosis with relaxation suggestions; (b) hypnosis with analgesia suggestions; (c) relaxation. Before and after the experimental session, the pain intensity was measured using a visual analogue scale (VAS) and the sensory and affective dimensions were measured with the McGill Pain Questionnaire. The results showed: (1) that hypnosis followed by analgesia suggestions has a greater effect on the intensity of pain and on the sensory dimension of pain than hypnosis followed by relaxation suggestions; (2) that the effect of hypnosis followed by relaxation suggestions is not greater than relaxation. We discuss the implications of the study on our understanding of the importance of suggestions used in hypnosis and of the differences and similarities between hypnotic relaxation and relaxation training.     

Posthypnotic Conflict and Psychopathology - Controlling for the Effects of Posthypnotic Suggestions: A Brief Communication

Hypnotically implanted paramnesias (false memories) designed to arouse Oedipal and non-Oedipal sexual conflicts were implanted in 2 groups of male undergraduate Ss. Ss in a third condition were hypnotized but no paramnesia wasm implanted. In a fourth condition, the Oedipal paramnesia was presented to Ss who had been instructed by coexperimenters to simulate hypnosis. All Ss had achieved a score of 7 or higher on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (Shor & E. C. Orne, 1962). Following implantation of the paramnesia, Ss were given conflict activating instructions consisting of posthypnotic suggestions to express strong sexual feelings in response to cue words contained in the paramnesias. Ss in all conditions produced significantly more symptoms of discomfort to cue words than to neutral words. No significant between-group differences were found. These results question the contention that discomfort following the implantation of an Oedipal paramnesia constitutes empirical support for psychoanalytic theory.     

Effects of misleading questions and hypnotic memory suggestion on memory reports: a signal-detection analysis

In 2002, the first author and colleagues reported data indicating that both hypnosis and misleading questions decreased the accuracy of memory reports and decreased "don't know" response rates, that the effects of misleading questions were significantly greater than those of hypnosis, and that the two effects were additive. Using a sample of 194 undergraduate students, the present study replicated the findings that misleading questions reduce accuracy and "don't know" responding but failed to replicate the negative effect of hypnosis on memory reports. Signal detection analysis indicated that misleading questioning produced decreased sensitivity accompanied by higher response bias, though affecting sensitivity more than producing a criterion shift.