维持性血液透析患者自体动静脉内瘘维护的研究进展

对目前国内外自体动静脉内瘘(AVF)的维护现状进行综述,提出在做好AVF穿刺综合护理的同时,定期监测内瘘血流量,重视AVF感染的预防护理,落实透析后的压迫止血护理,指导患者做好居家自我护理,并实施持续质量改进,以期减少AVF并发症,延长AVF使用寿命,提高透析患者的长期生存质量。     

药物洗脱支架和球囊扩张治疗自体动静脉内瘘狭窄的效果比较

目的 比较药物洗脱支架和球囊扩张治疗自体动静脉内瘘狭窄的效果和安全性。方法 回顾性分析2018年1月至2022年12月在我院手术治疗的87例自体动静脉内瘘狭窄患者的临床资料,根据手术方式分为球囊扩张组44例和支架植入组43例,比较两组患者手术成功率及术后狭窄内径、透析血流量和术后6个月、12个月初级通畅率以及术后1个月内并发症发生率。结果 所有患者临床成功率100%。支架植入组和球囊扩张组技术成功率分别为100%和91.0%。2组患者术后狭窄内径及透析血流量差异无统计学意义。支架植入组和球囊扩张组术后6个月初级通畅率分别为79.1%和45.5%,支架植入组6个月初级通畅率优于球囊扩张组,差异有统计学意义（P=0.001）。支架植入组和球囊扩张组12个月初级通畅率分别为30.2%和9.1%,支架植入组12个月初级通畅率优于球囊扩张组,差异有统计学意义（P=0.013）。两组患者术后1个月内并发症发生率差异无统计学意义。结论 药物洗脱支架治疗自体动静脉内瘘狭窄安全、有效,与球囊扩张术相比,可以提高术后初级通畅率,为治疗动静脉内瘘狭窄提供一种新的选择。     

木瓜酒保护动静脉内瘘效果观察

目的预防维持性血液透析患者动静脉内瘘(AVF)并发症。方法将180例维持性血液透析患者随机分为两组。对照组(96例)透析过程中应用喜疗妥外涂于AVF,并于透析结束24h用新鲜土豆片外敷;观察组(84例)于透析结束24h采用木瓜酒湿敷。结果干预18个月后两组血压、血细胞比容、血尿素氮、血肌酐、血清白蛋白、血清转铁蛋白、C反应蛋白、KT/V比较,差异无统计学意义(均P0.05);观察组AVF血流量不足、血管闭塞和血管硬结发生率显著低于对照组(P0.05,P0.01)。结论木瓜酒预防AVF并发症效果显著,可延长AVF使用时间。     

木瓜酒保护动静脉内瘘效果观察

目的预防维持性血液透析患者动静脉内瘘（AVF）并发症。方法将180例维持性血液透析患者随机分为两组。对照组（96例）透析过程中应用喜疗妥外涂于AVF,并于透析结束24h用新鲜土豆片外敷;观察组（84例）于透析结束24h采用木瓜酒湿敷。结果干预18个月后两组血压、血细胞比容、血尿素氮、血肌酐、血清白蛋白、血清转铁蛋白、C反应蛋白、KT／V比较,差异无统计学意义（均P〉0．05）;观察组AVF血流量不足、血管闭塞和血管硬结发生率显著低于对照组（P〈0．05,P％0．01）。结论木瓜酒预防AVF并发症效果显著,可延长AVF使用时间。     

护理干预对血液透析患者非常规动-静脉内瘘并发症的影响

目的 探讨护理干预对血液透析患者非常规动-静脉内瘘并发症的影响.方法 选择32例行非常规动-静脉内瘘手术的血液透析患者按随机数字表法分为观察组(18例)和对照组(14例).观察组采用系统化护理干预,对照组采用常规护理,追踪观察12个月,比较2组患者护理后首次穿刺成功率、透析中的血流量、血管通路的并发症.结果 观察组患者经护理干预后首次穿刺成功率和透析中的血流量与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01);观察组患者血管通路并发症假性血管瘤形成和血管狭窄与对照组比较差异也有统计学意义(P＜0.01);观察组患者局部血管硬化发生情况与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 系统化地护理干预能够促进非常规动-静脉内瘘的成熟,明显减少内瘘并发症,提高了非常规动-静脉内瘘的使用寿命.     

顺血流穿刺法对维持性血液透析患者动静脉内瘘使用初期的影响

目的探讨维持性血液透析（maintenance hemodialysis,MHD）患者自体动静脉内瘘使用初期的最佳穿刺方法。方法将64例自体动静脉内瘘术后6～8周的MHD患者按随机数表法分为对照组和实验组。2组动脉出路选择距离吻合口3em以上的内瘘远心端,对照组32例选用传统穿刺法,即逆血流穿刺法;实验组32例采用顺血流穿刺法,2组静脉回路均为顺血流穿刺。观察内瘘最初4次使用情况,比较2组一次穿刺成功率、血肿发生率、血流量不足发生率及拔针后压迫止血时间,同时比较尿素氮下降率（urear reduction rare,URR）及单室模型尿素清除指数（singl—poolKt／V,spKt／V）。结果64例患者,每例行血液透析4次,2组分别记录血液透析128例次（32例×4次）、内瘘穿刺256例次（动脉出路穿刺128例次＋静脉回路穿刺128例次）。实验组动脉出路一次穿刺成功率为99．22％（127例次,127／128）显著高于对照组92．97％（119例次,119／128）（P〈O．01）,血肿发生率为2．34％（3例次,3／128）低于对照组8．59％（11例次,11／128）（P〈0．05）,拔针后压迫止血时间[（17．63±1．91）min-]显著少于对照组[（19．61±1．84）mini（P〈0．01）。实验组和对照组静脉回路一次穿刺成功率分别为99．22％（127例次,127／128）和96．88％（124例次,124／128）、透析血流量不足发生率分别为6．25％（8例次,8／128）和7．03％（9例次,9／128）;URR分别为（65．23％±2．93％）和（65．32％±2．41％）、spKt／V分别为（1．20±0．18）和（1．21±0．11）,2组比较,差异无统计学意义（P〉O．05）。结论自体动静脉内瘘使用初期采用顺血流穿刺法,不影响透析血流量及透析充分性,可提高动脉出路穿刺成功率、减少血肿发生、缩短拔针后内瘘压迫止血时间,配合相关护理措施,可减少内瘘相关并发症、保护内瘘成熟,可能延长内瘘使用寿命。     

即穿型人工血管内瘘与膨体聚四氟乙烯人工血管内瘘建立血液透析通路的疗效比较

目的比较即穿型人工血管与膨体聚四氟乙烯(ePTFE)人工血管建立血液透析通路的治疗效果。方法回顾性分析2016年6月至2018年6月在首都医科大学附属北京同仁医院接受人工血管内瘘手术患者,包括即穿型人工血管23例,ePTFE人工血管144例,比较两组基本资料、临床数据、围术期及远期并发症、长期通畅率及中心静脉导管留置及拔除时间等结果。结果即穿型人工血管组23例随访18个月生存率为91.3%,ePTFE人工血管组生存率为94.5%。即穿型人工血管组及ePTFE人工血管组术后6、12、18个月初级通畅率分别为81.09%、57.52%、38.35%及73.05%、49.65%、26.24%,两组比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。即穿型人工血管组及ePTFE人工血管组术后6、12、18个月次级通畅率分别为95.65%、67.16%、55.97%及87.15%、72.63%、51.4%,两组比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。即穿型人工血管组术后初次穿刺时间(3.2±2.0)d,术后透析导管移除时间(3.8±1.6)d。ePTFE组术后人工血管初次穿刺时间(29.6±9.7)d,术后透析导管移除时间(53.8±29.3)d。即穿型人工血管组相较ePTFE人工血管组在人工血管初次穿刺时间、同期合并中心静脉导管手术及术后拔除透析导管时间差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论即穿型人工血管内瘘较ePTFE人工血管内瘘在通畅率及血栓形成、感染等并发症无显著差异,但其在早期人工血管穿刺透析、减少中心静脉导管留置时间及并发症均优于ePTFE人工血管。     

透析用上肢自体动静脉内瘘的临床研究

目的:探讨3种透析用自体动静脉内瘘的优点以及不足,为其在临床的应用和维护提供参考。方法:63例行自体动静脉内瘘术患者根据内瘘类型为鼻烟窝内瘘组(20例),腕部内瘘组(25例)和肘窝部内瘘组(18例),分析并比较3组患者术后的血栓形成、假性动脉瘤和高输出量心衰的发生率及平均吻合口直径和平均内瘘血流量。结果:全组术后血栓形成7例,取栓后继续透析,其中腕部内瘘组5例在术后1年内发生内瘘失功而改行对侧前臂内瘘或肘窝部内瘘;腕部和肘窝部内瘘组各有1例发生高输出量心衰,经手术缩小吻合口径后好转;1年后彩超复查,3组内瘘血流量均>300 mL/min。3组间比较显示,腕部内瘘组的血栓形成的发生率(5/25)高于鼻烟窝内瘘组(1/20)和肘窝部内瘘组(1/18),肘窝内瘘组的假性动脉瘤的发生率(7/18)高于鼻烟窝内瘘组(2/20)和腕部内瘘组(3/25)(均P<0.05),高输出量心衰的发生率各组间无明显差异(P>0.05);肘窝部内瘘组吻合口直径与内瘘血流量均高于鼻烟窝内瘘组与腕部内瘘组(均P<0.05)。结论:鼻烟窝内瘘可作为血管条件较好的透析患者的首选手术方式,肘窝部内瘘是血管条件较差和前臂内瘘失功后的选择。     

超声引导下腔内血管成形术治疗动静脉内瘘狭窄早期疗效评估

目的探讨超声引导下腔内血管成形术在治疗血液透析动静脉内瘘(AVF)狭窄的早期疗效。方法回顾性分析接受超声引导下经皮腔内血管成形术(PTA)治疗的24例前臂AVF狭窄的透析患者的临床资料,比较术前及术后即刻狭窄处内径,对通畅率采用Kaplan-Meier生存分析。结果 24例患者均获得技术成功,成功率为100%(24/24)。无穿刺部位假性动脉瘤及皮下血肿等并发症发生,除1例术后AVF血栓形成,围术期无患者死亡。术后随访3、6、9、12个月的初级通畅率分别为87.50%(21/24)、83.33%(20/24)、79.17%(19/24)、58.33%(14/24)。结论超声引导下PTA治疗AVF狭窄性病变微创、安全,是AVF狭窄性病变的合理治疗方法,近期效果明显。     

动静脉内瘘术前功能锻练的前瞻性临床研究

目的研究术前功能锻练对动静脉内瘘成型术成功率及术后并发症的影响。方法将研究对象随机分为2组,分别为术前未行功能锻练组、术前功能锻练两个月组。收集研究对象动静脉内瘘术前年龄、性别、APACHE II评分、血清Cystatin C值,术前两个月及手术当天头静脉直径、血红蛋白、血小板、白蛋白、胆固醇等临床特征,手术后观察半年。观察指标包括内瘘手术是否成功、内瘘成熟时间、内瘘使用时间、肱动脉血流量、术后并发症,并分析比较各组间差别。结果未锻练组75例患者,术前锻练两个月组76例患者。手术总体成功率92.1%,其中术前锻练组手术成功率为94.7%,术前未锻练组为89.3%,两组间比较,差异有统计学意义(P=0.03);术前锻练组瘘口血流量比未锻练组平均多38.8 mL/min,内瘘成熟时间比未锻练组平均少4 d,差异有统计学意义。但是,在内瘘使用时间以及术后并发症的发生率比较中,两组差异无统计学意义。结论动静脉内瘘成形术前开始功能锻练,能够提高手术成功率,增加肱动脉血流量,但并不延长内瘘生存时间及减少并发症。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.