Reasons for binge drinking among undergraduate students: An application of behavioural reasoning theory

Objectives. This study sought to apply behavioural reasoning theory (BRT) to the prediction of undergraduate students’ binge drinking intentions and behaviour. The reasons students use to justify and defend binge drinking may provide important information on motivations underlying such behaviour. Methods. Undergraduate students (N= 265) completed questionnaires assessing their reasons for and against binge drinking, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, intention, and past behaviour. Frequency of binge drinking was assessed at 1‐week follow‐up (N= 172). Results. A series of path analyses were conducted to assess the direct and indirect effects of the BRT variables on binge drinking intentions and behaviour. The variables under consideration accounted for 80% of the variance in binge drinking intentions (with past behaviour, reasons for binge drinking, and attitude having significant direct effects on intention), and 34% of the variance in binge drinking at 1‐week follow‐up (with past behaviour, perceived behavioural control, and intention having significant direct effects on future behaviour). Additional regression analyses revealed that respondents who strongly endorsed being sociable and having fun as reasons for binge drinking were more likely to intend to engage in binge drinking over the subsequent week. Conclusions. The results provide support for BRT as a framework for understanding undergraduate students’ binge drinking intentions and behaviour, and suggest that interventions need to focus on the social reasons for engaging in binge drinking in undergraduate students.     

An exploration of the motivation of pregnant women to perform pelvic floor exercises using the revised theory of planned behaviour

Objectives. To investigate the motivation of pregnant women towards the practice of pelvic floor exercises during pregnancy using the revised Theory of Planned Behaviour (RTPB), incorporating measures of past behaviour. Design. Longitudinal cohort study. Methods. Women (n= 289) attending antenatal clinics in the North‐East of Scotland were interviewed in the third trimester of pregnancy regarding their practice of pelvic floor exercises. Beliefs and attitudes about the exercises were investigated by self‐administered questionnaire using the RTPB as a framework. A follow‐up postal questionnaire was sent between 6 and 12 months after delivery. Results. TPB variables (attitude, subjective norm, and self‐efficacy) explained 53.1% of the variance in intention to practise pelvic floor exercises during pregnancy. Perceived vulnerability to incontinence (attitude to the current behaviour) had no relationship with intention. Measures of past behaviour significantly improved the percentage of explained variance in intention. Confidence in ability to perform pelvic floor exercises correctly (self‐efficacy) reliably predicted subsequent practice. Conclusions. Future compliance with pelvic floor exercises may be enhanced by effective instruction to enhance confidence in ability to contract the correct muscles and promotion of measures to help establish a habit of exercising the pelvic floor muscles.     

Predicting alcohol consumption and binge drinking in company employees: an application of planned behaviour and self-determination theories

Objectives. This study tested an integrated model of the psychosocial determinants of alcohol‐related behaviour among company employees from four nations. A motivational sequence was proposed in which motivational orientations from self‐determination theory influenced intentions to consume alcohol within guideline limits and alcohol‐related behaviour via the mediation of the theory of planned behaviour variables of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (PBC). Design. A three‐wave prospective design using self‐reported psychological and behavioural measures. Methods. Company employees (N= 486, males = 225, females = 261; M age = 30.41, SD= 8.31) from four nations (Estonia, Finland, Sweden, and UK) completed measures of autonomous and controlled motivation from self‐determination theory, attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, intentions from the theory of planned behaviour, and self‐reported measures of past alcohol consumption and binge‐drinking occasions at the first time point (time 1). Follow‐up psychological and behavioural measures were taken one month later (time 2) and follow‐up behavioural measures taken a further 2 months later (time 3). Results. Path analyses supported the motivational sequence with identified regulation (time 1), predicting intentions (time 1), and alcohol units consumed (time 2). The effects were indirect via the mediation of attitudes and PBC (time 1). A similar pattern of effects was found for the effect of time 2 psychological variables on time 3 units of alcohol consumed. There was little support for the effects of the psychological variables on binge‐drinking behaviour. Conclusions. Findings provide new information on the psychosocial determinants of alcohol behaviour in company employees and the processes involved. Results may provide impetus for the development of interventions to reduce alcohol consumption.     

Using past behaviour and spontaneous implementation intentions to enhance the utility of the theory of planned behaviour in predicting exercise

Objectives. This study examined the utility of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), past behaviour, and spontaneous implementation intentions in predicting exercise behaviour. The psychological correlates of spontaneous implementation intentions and the moderating effects of intention, perceived behavioural control, past behaviour, and implementation intentions at various time points were also examined. Design. Data collection occurred over three phases with a 2‐ and 3‐week interval. The attrition rate was 35.97% leaving a total of 162 participants (63 males, 99 females). In the first wave, participants completed measures of TPB, spontaneous implementation intentions, and past behaviour. Behaviour was assessed in the second and third waves, and a follow‐up measure of spontaneous implementation intentions was completed in Phase 3. Results. Several regression analyses were conducted. Attitude towards exercise and perceived behavioural control made a significant contribution to the prediction of intention. Intention made a significant contribution to the prediction of implementation intentions. Spontaneous implementation intentions reduced the effect of intention and past behaviour for behaviour at 2 weeks and when indexed over a 5‐week period. When behaviour was measured for a 3‐week period (following an initial 2‐week period), the variance that intention and past behaviour accounted for in exercise behaviour decreased, and spontaneous implementation intentions were no longer a significant predictor of behaviour. Spontaneous implementation intentions were found to interact with past behaviour, such that implementation intentions predicted exercise behaviour only among participants who did not exercise frequently in the past. Conclusions. Implications and future research directions are discussed.     

Habit, identity, and repetitive action: a prospective study of binge-drinking in UK students

Objectives. Repeated action can lead to the formation of habits and identification as ‘the kind of person’ that performs the behaviour. This has led to the suggestion that identity‐relevance is a facet of habit. This study explores conceptual overlap between habit and identity, and examines where the two constructs fit into an extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model of binge‐drinking among university students. Design. Prospective, questionnaire‐based correlational design. Methods. A total of 167 UK university students completed baseline measures of past behaviour, self‐identity, the Self‐Report Habit Index (SRHI), and TPB constructs. One week later, 128 participants completed a follow‐up behaviour measure. Results. Factor analyses of the SRHI and four identity items revealed two correlated but distinct factors, relating to habit and identity, respectively. Hierarchical regression analyses of intention and behaviour showed that identity contributed over and above TPB constructs to the prediction of intention, whereas habit predicted behaviour directly, and interacted with intentions in predicting behaviour. Habits unexpectedly strengthened the intention–behaviour relation, such that strong intenders were more likely to binge‐drink where they also had strong habits. Conclusions. Identity and habit are conceptually discrete and impact differently on binge‐drinking. Findings have implications for habit theory and measurement. Recommendations for student alcohol consumption reduction initiatives are offered.     

Predicting breakfast consumption: An application of the theory of planned behaviour and the investigation of past behaviour and executive function

Objectives . The objective of the current study is to examine the determinants of breakfast consumption with the application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; 1991) and investigate the additional variables of past behaviour and executive function. Design . A prospective 1‐week study investigating the predictive ability of TPB variables, past behaviour and executive function was utilized. Methods . Ninety‐six participants were administered two measures of executive function (response inhibition and planning) and completed self‐report questionnaires regarding their attitudes, subjective norms, perceived control, intentions and past behaviour of breakfast consumption. One week later, participants returned a follow‐up questionnaire on their behaviour. Results . The result of the study showed that the TPB significantly predicted intentions and prospective behaviour of breakfast consumption, however, past behaviour was found to be the strongest predictor of future behaviour. Considering executive function, response inhibition was not found to predict behaviour, however, planning ability explained unique variance in behaviour and moderated the association between intention and behaviour. Conclusions . The findings support the use of the TPB in explaining breakfast eating habits, and suggest that executive function of planning may be somewhat useful to predict this behaviour. The significance of past behaviour also suggests that breakfast consumption may commonly be a stable, habitual behaviour that may undermine the need for self‐regulation. Implications for creating behavioural‐change interventions are discussed.     

Using the theory of planned behaviour to understand binge drinking: the importance of beliefs for developing interventions

Objectives. To elicit students’ salient beliefs in relation to binge drinking, and to examine the extent to which individual salient beliefs predict theory of planned behaviour (TPB) constructs in relation to binge drink, and actual drinking behaviour assessed later that evening. Design. Longitudinal, over a single evening. Methods. 192 students were recruited as they entered a campus bar at the beginning of the evening. They completed questionnaires with open‐ended questions eliciting beliefs concerning binge drinking, and ratings scales assessing standard TPB constructs in relation to binge drinking. At the end of the evening, 181 completed a second questionnaire and recorded the number of alcoholic drinks they had consumed. Results. Beliefs were reliably coded (all kappas ≥0.79). Students with higher intentions to binge drink were more likely to believe that their friends approved of binge drinking, and that (lack of) money would make it difficult. Students who reported drinking more alcohol at the end of the evening were more likely to believe that getting drunk is an advantage/what they would like about binge drinking tonight, that their sports teams would approve, and that celebrating, drinking patterns, and environment would make it easy to binge drink. Conclusions. The present study has identified the individually salient beliefs relating to drinking behaviour that the TPB states should be addressed by interventions to alter behaviour, and which that should be assessed as mediators in intervention research. As a whole, these findings highlight the importance of perceived peer norms in binge drinking in this population, and support the idea of interventions to challenge the perception of social pressure to binge drink.     

With a little help from my goals: Integrating intergoal facilitation with the theory of planned behaviour to predict physical activity

Objective . Integration of a multiple goal theory approach into the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to investigate how the perceived facilitating and conflicting relationships in multiple goal pursuit predict performance of a health‐related behaviour. Design . Prospective design with 8‐week follow‐up. Methods . At baseline, perceived intergoal facilitation and intergoal conflict were measured using personal projects analysis supplemented with standard TPB measures for physical activity (PA). Self‐reported PA was measured at follow‐up 8 weeks later. N=137 participants completed measures at both time points (55.4% response rate at follow‐up). Results . Hierarchical regression showed that perceived intergoal facilitation, but not intergoal conflict, directly predicted PA beyond intention and perceived behavioural control (PBC), accounting for more than 4% of additional variance in PA. Intergoal facilitation had an indirect effect on intention through attitude and PBC, and intention partially mediated the effect of intergoal facilitation on behaviour. Conclusion . The perceived facilitating effect of pursuing other personal goals predicts the performance of a health‐related behaviour over and above single behaviour‐focused social cognitions.     

The role of perceived need within the theory of planned behaviour: A comparison of exercise and healthy eating

Objectives: This study examined the effect of perceived need on exercise and healthy eating using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). In addition, it investigated the determinants of perceived need. Method: Participants completed a questionnaire measuring components of TPB and perceived need. A follow‐up questionnaire 1 week later measured behaviour. The questionnaires were completed by e‐mail. The initial questionnaire was completed by 331 adults, and 286 follow‐up questionnaires were returned. Results: Perceived behavioural control was the main predictor of exercise intention and affective attitude was the main predictor of healthy eating intention. Perceived need significantly contributed to the prediction of healthy eating intention but not to exercise intention. Intention and perceived behavioural control predicted actual behaviour but perceived need did not. Reasons reported for the perception of needing to engage in both behaviours mainly focused on physical health and weight control. Conclusions: Reasons reported for low perceived need suggest that the concept of perceived need may be rather ambiguous, particularly in the case of exercise. Therefore, further research is needed to elucidate the role of perceived need in relation to a variety of health behaviours.     

Use of mental simulations to change theory of planned behaviour variables

Objectives The predictive validity of the theory of planned behaviour is well established, but much less is known about: (a) whether there are causal relationships between key components of the model and (b) how to go about changing the theory of planned behaviour variables. This study tested the ability of outcome and process simulations to change variables specified in the theory of planned behaviour in relation to blood donation. Design Participants (N = 146) were randomized to one of four conditions: outcome simulation only, process simulation only, process‐plus‐outcome simulation and a distractor control condition. The dependent variables were state anxiety, and intention attitude, subjective norm and perceived control from the theory of planned behaviour. Methods Participants were asked to empty their mind and visualize themselves: (a) after donating blood (outcome manipulation), (b) preparing to donate blood (process manipulation), (c) both preparing to donate blood and after having donated blood (process‐plus‐outcome manipulation) or (d) both preparing to get a high mark and after having got a high mark on their course (control condition). Following mental rehearsal, participants completed the dependent variables. Results There were no main effects of outcome simulation, but process simulation successfully increased intention, subjective norm and perceived control. There was also a significant outcome simulation × process simulation interaction for attitude. The effect of the process manipulation on intention was mediated by subjective norm and perceived control. Conclusions The findings show promise for the use of mental simulations in changing cognitions and further research is required to extend the present findings to other health behaviours.     

Fear appeals and binge drinking: A terror management theory perspective

Objectives The aim of the current research was to test the terror management theory‐derived hypotheses that exposure to information about the mortality‐related risks of binge drinking would make mortality salient (Study 1) and, hence, exacerbate willingness to binge drink amongst those who perceive this behaviour to benefit self‐esteem (Study 2). Study 1 Participants (N=97) were allocated to one of five experimental conditions. Results confirmed that exposure to information about the mortality‐related risks of binge drinking made mortality salient. Study 2 Participants (N=296) were allocated to one of three experimental conditions. Exposure to mortality‐related information about the risks of binge drinking was found to result in greater willingness to binge drink among (i) binge drinkers and (ii) non‐binge drinkers who perceived this behaviour to benefit self‐esteem. There was no evidence, however, that exposure to such information influenced binge drinking over the following week. Conclusions Research findings suggest that mortality‐related health promotion campaigns might inadvertently make mortality salient, and hence precipitate the very behaviours which they aim to deter among some recipients.     

Integrating the theory of planned behaviour and self‐determination theory in health behaviour: A meta‐analysis

Purpose A meta‐analysis of studies integrating the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and self‐determination theory (SDT) in health contexts is presented. The analysis aimed to provide cumulative empirical support for a motivational sequence in which self‐determined motivation from SDT predicts the proximal predictors of intentions and behaviour from the TPB. Methods A literature search identified 36 integrated studies providing 45 tests of effects between TPB and SDT variables. Hunter and Schmidt's (1994) methods of meta‐analysis were used to correct the effect sizes across the studies for statistical artifacts. Age (old versus young), publication status (published versus unpublished), study design (correlational versus experimental/intervention), and behaviour type (physical activity versus other health‐related behaviours) were evaluated as moderators of the effects. A path‐analysis using the meta‐analytically derived correlations was conducted to examine the proposed motivational sequence. Results Statistically significant corrected correlations were evident among the perceived autonomy support and self‐determined motivation constructs from SDT and the attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, intention, and health‐related behaviour constructs from the TPB. Only six of the 28 effect sizes were moderated by the proposed moderators. Path analysis revealed that the significant effects of self‐determined motivation on intentions and behaviour were partially mediated by the proximal predictors from the TPB. Conclusions Evidence from this synthesis supported the theoretical integration and proposed motivational sequence. Results are discussed with reference to the complementary aspects of the TPB and SDT and the need for integrated experimental or intervention studies on a broader range of health behaviours.     

Theory of planned behaviour and ecstasy use: An analysis of moderator‐interactions

Objective: This study tested potential moderator interactions between components of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in relation to ecstasy use, extending previous research. It was expected that attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (PBC) would moderate each other in predicting intended use of this drug. Method: A cross‐sectional survey was administered to 200 young adults. Results: In hierarchical multiple regression analysis, past behaviour and attitude independently predicted intention; previous use of ecstasy and more positive attitudes towards ecstasy use were associated with stronger intentions to use this drug in the future. Moreover, there was a significant interaction between attitude and PBC (R²_change = 0.05). Slope analysis revealed that PBC better predicted intention given more positive attitudes towards ecstasy use. Conclusions: This moderator function may help explain predictive inconsistencies reported in the literature. Implications for the TPB are considered.     

Belief importance and the theory of planned behaviour: Comparing modal and ranked modal beliefs in predicting attendance at breast screening

Objective: The objective of this study was, to compare the predictive utility of two measures of the attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control constructs of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1991) in predicting intention and subsequent attendance at breast screening. One construct was based on a modal set of underlying beliefs; the other was based on the three beliefs from each construct considered by the participant to be the most important. Method: We used a prospective, longitudinal design using a postal questionnaire at Time 1 and objective attendance data from screening records at Time 2. Questionnaires were sent to 1657 women from southeast England due to be invited for X‐ray mammography under the UK's National Health Service Breast Screening Programme. After evaluating a set of modal behavioural, normative and control beliefs, women were asked to select the three beliefs they saw as the most important for them, and to rank them. The products of these three beliefs formed the ‘important’ (vs. the modal) measures. Results: The ‘important’ attitude and subjective norm measures showed similar associations with direct measures and were equivalent to the modal measures in predicting intention and attendance at screening. The modal control construct was marginally more robust than the ‘important’ one in its association with the direct measure of control, and with intention. Key individual important beliefs that predicted intention and behaviour were identified. Conclusions: Measuring belief importance can help more fully identify the structures underlying attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control, and can provide useful information when the TPB is used as the basis for intervention to help change behaviour.     

Testing an integrated model of the theory of planned behaviour and self‐determination theory for different energy balance‐related behaviours and intervention intensities

Objectives The aim of the study was to test the relations between constructs from the self‐determination theory (autonomous and controlled motivation), the theory of planned behaviour (attitudes, self‐efficacy, and intentions), and behaviour change within a theoretically integrated model. Additionally, the aim was to test if these relations vary by behaviour (physical activity or dietary behaviour) or intervention intensity (frequency). Design. It was a randomized controlled trial with a ‘usual care’ condition (medical screening only) and an intervention condition (medical screening+access to a website and coaching). Participants in the latter condition could freely determine their own intervention intensity. Methods. Participants (N= 287) completed measures of the theoretical constructs and behaviour at baseline and after the first intervention year (N= 236). Partial least squares path modelling was used. Results. Changes in autonomous motivation positively predicted changes in self‐efficacy and intentions towards a healthy diet. Changes in controlled motivation positively predicted changes in attitudes towards physical activity, changes in self‐efficacy, and changes in behavioural intentions. The intervention intensity moderated the effect of self‐efficacy on intentions towards physical activity and the relationship between attitude and physical activity. Changes in physical activity were positively predicted by changes in intentions whereas desired changes in fat intake were negatively predicted by the intervention intensity. Conclusions Important relations within the theoretically integrated model were confirmed but others were not. Moderation effects were found for behaviour and intervention intensity.     

Protection motivation theory and the prediction of physical activity among adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes in a large population sample

Objectives. To investigate the utility of the protection motivation theory (PMT) for explaining physical activity (PA) in an adult population with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Design. Cross‐sectional and 6‐month longitudinal analysis using PMT. Methods. Two thousand three hundred and eleven individuals with T1D (N =697) and T2D (N =1,614) completed self‐report PMT constructs of vulnerability, severity, response efficacy, self‐efficacy, and intention, and PA behaviour at baseline and 6‐month follow‐up. Multi‐group structural equation modelling was conducted to: (1) test the fit of the PMT structure; (2) determine the similarities and differences in the PMT structure between the two types of diabetes; and (3) examine the explained variance and compare the strength of association of the PMT constructs in predicting PA intention and behaviour. Results. The findings provide evidence for the utility of the PMT in both diabetes samples (χ²/df =1.27?4.08, RMSEA=.02–.05). Self‐efficacy was a stronger predictor of intention (β=0.64–0.68) than response efficacy (β=0.14–0.16) in individuals with T1D or T2D. Severity was significantly related to intention (β=0.06) in T2D individuals only, whereas vulnerability was not significantly related to intention or PA behaviour. Self‐efficacy (β's=0.20–0.28) and intention (β's=0.12–0.30) were significantly associated with PA behaviour. Conclusions. Promotion of PA behaviour should primarily target self‐efficacy to form intentions and to change behaviour. In addition, for individuals with T2D, severity information should be incorporated into PA intervention materials in this population.     

A meta-analysis of the effects of measuring theory of planned behaviour constructs on behaviour within prospective studies

Measurement reactivity effects, such as the mere measurement effect, have been proposed as a reason for behavioural changes in a number of theory of planned behaviour intervention studies. However, it is unclear whether such changes are the result of the mere measurement effect or of other artefacts of intervention study design. The aim of this study is to determine the size and direction of changes in health behaviours from baseline to follow-up in prospective studies using the theory of planned behaviour. Electronic databases were searched for the theory of planned behaviour studies which measured health behaviours at two or more time points. Change in behaviour was calculated for all studies. Sixty-six studies were included. Mean effect sizes across all studies were small and negative (d = ?.03). Effect size was moderated by behaviour, behaviour type and follow-up length. Subgroup analyses showed significant decreases in socially undesirable behaviour (d = ?.28), binge drinking (d = ?.17), risk driving (d = ?.20), sugar snack consumption (d = ?.43) and sun-protective behaviour (d = ?.18). Measurement of intention at baseline resulted in significant decreases in undesirable behaviour. Changes in undesirable behaviours reported in other studies may be the result of the mere measurement effect.     

The theory of planned behaviour predicts self‐reports of walking,but does not predict step count

Objectives. This paper compares multiple measures of walking in two studies, and the second study compares how well Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) constructs perform in predicting these different measures. Methods. In Study 1, 41 participants wore a New Lifestyles NL‐2000 pedometer for 1 week. Subsequently, participants completed a questionnaire containing measures of the TPB constructs and two self‐report measures of walking, followed by two interview measures of walking. For Study 2, 200 RAF trainee aircraftsmen wore pedometers for 2 weeks. At the end of each week, participants completed the questionnaire and interview measures of walking. Results. Both studies found no significant association between questionnaire measures of walking and pedometer measures. In Study 1, the interview measures produced significant, large correlations with the pedometer measure, but these relationships were markedly weaker in the second study. TPB variables were found to explain 22% of variance in intention to walk in Study 1 and 45% of the variance in Study 2. In Study 2, prediction of subsequent measures of behaviour was found to be weak, except when using a single‐item measure of walking. Conclusions. Recall of walking is poor, and accurate measurement by self‐report is problematic. Although the TPB predicts intentions to walk well, it does not predict actual amount of walking, as assessed by pedometer. Possible reasons for these findings include the unique nature of walking as an activity primarily used to facilitate higher order goals. The use of single‐item measures may exaggerate the effectiveness of the TPB model for walking, and possibly other forms of physical activity.