Disordered eating in girls with Type 1 diabetes: Examining directions for prevention

Girls with Type 1 diabetes (insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus [IDDM]) have been identified to be at an increased risk for developing bulimia nervosa (BN) and subthreshold eating disorders. The co‐occurrence of these conditions can severely compromise the physical health of these individuals and can even accelerate mortality. The use of a unique and dangerous purging behaviour called insulin manipulation is of particular concern among young women with IDDM because this has been shown to be associated with metabolic dysfunction and devastating complications such as retinopathy. Therefore, development of prevention programs designed to protect girls with IDDM against developing disordered eating is a critical priority. To date, however, no such prevention programs have been evaluated in the literature. Therefore a general overview of research in the areas of IDDM and disordered eating is provided, as well as a review of the design and content of effective eating disorder intervention programs, with suggestions about how such programs should be adapted, in order that they can be used and evaluated with an IDDM population.     

Personality factors and disordered eating in young women with type 1 diabetes mellitus

The authors examined the association between the presence of personality variables implicated in the pathogenesis of eating disorders and the presence of eating disorder symptoms in 51 women with type 1 diabetes. Subjects were assessed with interview instruments and self-report questionnaires, including scales measuring eating disorder symptoms, borderline personality characteristics, and perfectionism. Fourteen subjects displayed moderate to severe eating disorder symptoms. Perfectionism was related to attitudinal aspects of eating disorders (e.g., weight preoccupation), and borderline personality characteristics were related to disordered behaviors (e.g., insulin omission) and poor glycemic control. The results suggest that personality factors are related to disordered eating and poor glycemic control in diabetic women.     

Eating disorders and eating problems among adolescents with type 1 diabetes: exploring relationships with temperament and character

OBJECTIVE: To determine temperament and character among adolescents with type 1 diabetes with and without disordered eating. METHOD: A clinical sample of 199 adolescents from multiple centers with a mean age of 14.1 (SD, 2.5) years were screened and diagnosed for eating disorders. Assessed were temperament and character as conceptualized by Cloninger, glycemic control, and depression. RESULTS: Adolescent patients with clinical eating disorders or subthreshold eating problems had significantly higher mean scores in harm avoidance and lower mean scores in self-directedness. Harm avoidance remained significant even after controlling for depressive pathology. DISCUSSION: This study is the first to show evidence that among youths (in particular, girls) with type 1 diabetes, there is an association between low self-directedness, high harm avoidance, and the presence of eating, weight, and shape pathology. For these particular youths, important implications for clinical practice are outlined.     

Glycemic control and the psychosocial benefits gained by patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus attending the diabetes camp

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of diabetes camp on glycemic control, knowledge, and psychosocial benefits among patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D). Glycemic control among patients with infrequent and frequent self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) was also compared. METHODS: During a 5-day camp, 60 patients were taught diabetes self-management education (DSME). After camp, patients were divided into two groups based on frequency of SMBG (<3 versus 3-4 times/day) and were followed up until 6-month post-camp. Patients' HbA1c levels and knowledge were assessed at baseline, 3- and 6-month post-camp. Patients' impressions towards camp were assessed. RESULTS: In both SMBG groups, HbA1c levels decreased significantly at 3-month post-camp but did not sustain at 6-month monitoring. The patients with frequent SMBG had a lower mean HbA1c level. A significant improvement in knowledge was noted and sustained up to 6-month post-camp. The patients found diabetes camp of benefit and felt they could better cope with diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Although the effect of the diabetes camp on glycemic control was short-lived, an improvement in knowledge and a better attitude towards having diabetes were seen among participants. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: The psychosocial benefits and knowledge gained by patients attending diabetes camp underline the importance of including a camp in a diabetes management plan. To improve patients' long-term glycemic control, a continuous education is required.     

Brief report: speed of information processing in children with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether children with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) process information more slowly than children who do not have diabetes. METHODS: We tested 31 children with early onset and longer duration of IDDM, 35 with later onset and briefer duration of IDDM, and 36 comparison children without diabetes. They were administered five tasks requiring rapid responding that assessed a range of cognitive processes. RESULTS: On most tasks, children in the three groups were quite similar in the accuracy and speed of performance. Furthermore, for children in the diabetic groups, disease-related variables were unrelated to accuracy and speed of performance. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that children with IDDM do not have a pervasive deficit in speed of information processing, although more circumscribed deficits in processing speed are possible.     

Brief report: self-care behaviors of children with type 1 diabetes living in Puerto Rico

OBJECTIVE: To examine self-care behaviors among children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes living in Puerto Rico, to determine the relationship between self-care and demographic variables, and to investigate the utility of the 24-hour recall interview within a Hispanic population. METHOD: Forty-one children (M age = 12.6 years) with type 1 diabetes, and their mothers, were administered the 24-hour recall interview on three separate occasions to assess diabetes-related self-care behaviors. RESULTS: Children reported self-care behaviors that included daily administration of an average of two insulin injections and two blood glucose tests, and consumption of 5.5 meals a day comprised of 52% carbohydrates and 29% fat. Younger age, female gender, longer illness duration, and better metabolic control were associated with higher rates of several self-care behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Data provide a first look at self-care behaviors of children with type 1 diabetes living in Puerto Rico and suggest the utility of the 24-hour recall interview within this population.     

Brief report: Cross-cultural replication of an anomalous psychometric pattern in children with type 1 diabetes

OBJECTIVE: To replicate an anomalous psychometric profile previously documented in children with Type 1 diabetes living in the mainland United States with a cross-cultural sample selected from Puerto Rico. METHODS: Ninety-three Spanish-speaking children (M age = 12.8 years) with Type 1 diabetes living in Puerto Rico were administered the Puerto Rican version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R). The factor structure of the Puerto Rican sample's WISC-R was then compared to that of a United States sample (n = 95) in which an anomalous factor structure in children with diabetes was first documented. RESULTS: As in the United States sample, a four-factor IQ structure was obtained. Instead of the traditional three-factor structure of the WISC-R, the Perceptual Organization factor split into a Spatial Conceptual factor and an anomalous Visual Discrimination factor. CONCLUSIONS: Results support previous findings and suggest anomalies in the psychometric profiles of children with Type 1 diabetes. Cross-cultural replication of the anomalous IQ factor structure, and atypical visual discrimination, suggests that differences are illness-related, and consideration may therefore be warranted when administering some subtests of the Wechsler scales to children with Type 1 diabetes.     

Parenting adolescent girls with type 1 diabetes: parents' perspectives

OBJECTIVE: To explore parents' perceptions of the impact of type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) on the family and to better understand parent-child conflict, parental worries, and coping strategies related to the management of DM in adolescence. METHODS: Semistructured interviews were conducted with the parents of 30 adolescent girls who had DM for at least 1 year. Using standard procedures for content analysis, themes were identified from the parents' discussions. RESULTS: Although parents reported worries, conflicts, and negative impacts of the DM on their family, they also recognized positive aspects of the DM (e.g., it promotes adolescent responsibility) and had strategies to cope with its challenges (e.g., letting go of perfectionism in disease management, keeping a positive attitude). CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this study can be used by clinicians to assess parents' concerns about DM and to help them discover ways to cope with their worries and stay involved with the disease's management. Considering the parents' perspective will likely lead to parents feeling understood by the health care team and will help to reduce their worries.     

Psychological factors account for variation in metabolic control and perceived quality of life among people with type 2 diabetes in New Zealand

Background: Many people with diabetes experience poor metabolic control and reduced quality of life (QoL). Purpose: This study investigates the relationships between psychological variables, metabolic control, and QoL among adults with type 2 diabetes. Method: Research participants (n = 615) were randomly selected from a medical database of people with type 2 diabetes held in Wellington, New Zealand. Self-report psychological data was collected using a mailed questionnaire survey. Clinical characteristics were obtained through a review of medical records with participants’ written consent. Results: Psychological perceptions of diabetes explain approximately 8% of differences in metabolic control and 16% of variability in quality of life, even when controlling for key clinical characteristics. Belief that diabetes is temporary, a perception that diabetes is difficult to control, strong negative emotional representation of diabetes, and agreement that diabetes has serious consequences were linked to poor illness outcomes. Conclusion: Psychological variables make a unique and statistically significant contribution to the explanation of differences in both physiological and emotional diabetes outcomes. Potentially, modification of personal views about diabetes could help promote positive health outcomes for people with type 2 diabetes. This study highlights specific illness perceptions that could be targeted in future interventions. The following organizations are acknowledged for their generous support of this research: Wellington Regional Diabetes Trust, Massey University, Palmerston North Medical Research Foundation, Foundation for Research, Science, and Technology, Novo Nordisk New Zealand.     

Child behavior problems and family functioning as predictors of adherence and glycemic control in economically disadvantaged children with type 1 diabetes: a prospective study

OBJECTIVE: This prospective study examined how child behavior problems and family functioning predict adherence behavior and glucose regulation (glycemic control) in a sample of economically disadvantaged children. METHODS: Children with type 1 diabetes (N = 116; 58.6% African American) were assessed for externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and family adaptability and cohesion and followed for a mean of 3.8 years. Glycemic control (glycosylated hemoglobin [HbA1c]) was assessed at baseline and follow-up, and adherence was assessed at follow-up. RESULTS: Analyses controlled for baseline HbA1c and years to follow-up. Multivariate analyses indicated that better adherence was predicted by high family cohesion. Better glycemic control was predicted by high family cohesion, the absence of externalizing behavior problems, and the presence of internalizing behavior problems. In addition, tests of moderation indicated that better follow-up glycemic control occurred among girls from high cohesion families and younger children from low adaptability families. Although better adherence predicted better glycemic control, adherence did not mediate the relationships of behavior problems or family functioning with glycemic control. CONCLUSIONS: A child's behavior problems and family functioning may influence both adherence to the diabetes regimen and glycemic control several years later, suggesting the potential value of interventions that address child behavior and family functioning.     

Prevalence of human leukocyte antigen DQA1 and DQB1 alleles in Kuwaiti Arab children with type 1 diabetes mellitus

The prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) DQB1 and DQA1 alleles has been determined in 78 Kuwaiti Arab children with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and in 57 normal healthy controls with similar ethnic background. The typing of HLA-DQ alleles was carried out using an allele-specific DNA-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) SSP method. DR typing was also performed in 212 control subjects using PCR-SSP (sequence specific primer) method. A significantly higher frequency of DQB1*0201 allele was found in IDDM cases compared to the controls (p<0.001). There was no significant difference in the prevalence of DQB1 alleles *0302, *0501, and *0602 between IDDM cases and the controls. In contrast, DQB1 alleles *0301, *0402, *0502, *0602, and *0603 were represented at a somewhat higher frequency in controls compared to the IDDM cohort. The frequency of DQA1 allele *0301, which encode for an Arg at codon 52, was significantly higher in the IDDM patients compared to the controls (p<0.001). The frequency of DQA1 allele *0302 was also higher in IDDM cases than controls (p = 0.034) but the difference was less pronounced than DQA1*0301. Amongst the Arg52 alleles, no significant difference was detected in the frequency of *0401 between IDDM cases and the controls and the allele *0501 was detected only in controls. For non-Arg52 alleles *0103, *0104, and *0201, the differences in the two groups were not significant, with the exception of allele *0104 (p = 0.024). DR3 was the most common type in the Kuwaiti general population (28%) and DRB1*0301 was detected in 41% of the individuals with DR3 specificity. Analysis of HLA-DQBI/DQA1 haplotypes from IDDM cases and controls revealed a significantly high frequency of haplotype DQA1*0301/DQB1*0201 between Kuwaiti IDDM cases (49/78, 63%) and the controls (8/57, 14%).     

Brief report: a cognitive behavioral intervention for distressed adolescents with type I diabetes

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of a cognitive behavioral intervention for distressed adolescents with Type I diabetes. METHODS: Six youths with elevated levels of anxiety, anger, or diabetes stress received training in cognitive restructuring and problem solving in individual sessions. A multiple baseline design across participants was used. Treatment effectiveness was assessed through measures of anxiety, anger expression, and diabetes stress. RESULTS: Four youths displayed some improvement on one or more variables for which they had elevated levels during baseline, while others showed no impact. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive behavioral interventions show some promise for distressed youths with Type I diabetes. Individual youths responded to treatment differently. Further research is needed in developing procedures to better meet the needs of youths, improve youth participation, and enhance treatment effectiveness.     

胰岛素泵联合门冬胰岛素治疗2型糖尿病重型颅脑损伤的临床观察

目的探讨胰岛素泵联合门冬胰岛素（CSII）治疗2型糖尿病（T2DM）重型颅脑损伤的临床疗效。方法选择T2DM重型颅脑损伤（GCS评分小于8分）的患者87例,在颅脑损伤综合治疗的基础上,分为胰岛素泵联合门冬胰岛素组（CSII组,n=42）和常规人胰岛素多次皮下注射组（MSII组,n=45）,观察两组治疗后血糖控制情况、血糖达标时间、每日胰岛素用量、低血糖发生率、重型颅脑损伤的有效率和住院时间。结果两组治疗后空腹血糖及平均随机血糖均较治疗前明显降低,且CSII组较MSII组降低更明显（P〈0.05）;CSII组较MSII组在血糖达标时间、每日胰岛素用量、低血糖发生率、重型颅脑损伤的有效率、住院时间上差异显著（P〈0.05）。结论胰岛素泵联合门冬胰岛素治疗T2DM重型颅脑损伤,能有效地控制血糖,缩短血糖达标时间和住院时间,减少每日胰岛素用量,减少低血糖发生,而且能显著提高重型颅脑损伤的治疗效果。     

The efficacy of dapagliflozin for type 1 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies

IntroductionThe efficacy of dapagliflozin for type 1 diabetes remains controversial. We conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to explore the treatment efficacy of dapagliflozin versus placebo in patients with type 1 diabetes.MethodsWe have searched PubMed, EMbase, Web of science, EBSCO and Cochrane library databases through May 2019 for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the effect of dapagliflozin versus placebo for type 1 diabetes. This meta-analysis is performed using the random-effect model.ResultsSix RCTs are included in the meta-analysis. Overall, compared with control group for type 1 diabetes, dapagliflozin treatment shows favorable impact on glycated hemoglobin HbA1c (standard mean difference SMD=-3.93; 95% confidence interval CI =-4.44 to -3.48; P<0.00001), HbA1c reduction of ≥0.5% (risk ratio RR=1.98; 95% CI=1.65 to 2.39; P<0.00001), and fasting plasma glucose FPG (SMD=-0.93; 95% CI=-1.77 to -0.10; P=0.03). There is no statistical difference of hypoglycemia (RR=1.09; 95% CI=0.66 to 1.79; P=0.75) or adverse events (RR=1.07; 95% CI=0.96 to 1.20; P=0.20) between two groups, but the incidence of ketone-related events is higher than those in control group (RR=0.28; 95% CI=3.96 to 11.52; P=0.01).ConclusionsDapagliflozin treatment benefits to reduce HbA1c and FPG for type 1 diabetes.     

Biological, Psychosocial, and Sociodemographic Variables Associated with Depressive Symptoms in Persons with Type 2 Diabetes

Studies have found an association between glycemic status and indices of health-related quality of life in people with diabetes mellitus and comorbid depression. No study to date has examined the relative strength of influences of glycemic status and health-related quality of life on depression in people with diabetes mellitus, nor have important moderators in this relationship been examined. This study examined the relative strength of correlations between glycemic status and health-related quality of life and depressive symptoms and the degree to which those correlations were moderated by sociodemographic variables in 146 people with type 2 diabetes. Depressive symptoms were measured with the Centers for Epidemiological Studies—Depression (CES-D) scale. Health-related quality of life was measured with the SF-36 Health Survey. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) was used as a measure of glycemic status and body mass index and waist–hip ratio were measured. Results indicated that SF-36 scores accounted for a greater proportion of the variance in CES-D scores. The association between CES-D and SF-36 scores was moderated by HbA1c, sex, education, marital status, and social support. The implications and limitations of these results were discussed in the context of past studies.