Drug and alcohol consumption and sexual risk behaviour among young adults: results from a national survey.

To study the association of the consumption of alcohol and other psychoactive drugs with sexual risk behaviour for HIV infection, data from a representative sample of the Spanish population aged 18-39 years were analysed. A national household survey was carried out in 1996 using a combination of face-to-face interviews and self-administered questionnaires. The survey included 5253 subjects aged 18-39 years who provided information on alcohol and drug consumption, number of sexual partners and condom use with the steady partner and with casual partners in the 12 months before the survey. Of those surveyed, 27.4% had been drunk at least once and 20.5% had consumed drugs. Both behaviours were associated with male sex, younger age, higher educational level, being single and having had more than one sexual partner. In the logistic regression analysis adjusting for the sociodemographic variables, the greater frequency of drunkenness and cannabis use were associated with having more than one sexual partner. Regular condom use was significantly less frequent among cocaine users and more frequent among opiate users, but was not associated with the use of other drugs. Sexual risk behaviour (i.e. more than one partner and failure to use a condom regularly) was more frequent among persons who had been drunk or used cannabis or cocaine. Excessive consumption of alcohol, and cannabis and cocaine use are independently associated with sexual behaviour involving greater risk of HIV infection or transmission.     

Drug use and drinking among students in 36 countries

This article summarizes data on alcohol and drug use from studies of high school students in 36 countries. Drug use levels varied greatly among countries, but alcohol and cannabis were used most often, followed by amphetamines, ecstasy, and cocaine. In countries having high levels of cannabis use, the use of other drugs was also more common but there were no consistent differences for alcohol. Use of various drugs was correlated except for alcohol use, which was related to cannabis use only when some countries with low alcohol use levels were removed. In general, the studies show that drug use priorities for studies are mainly the same in the countries studied.     

Validation of self-reported cannabis use by urine analysis

A study of 113 young multiple drug users, interviewed at one year follow-up, was designed to assess the validity of self-reported cannabis use. Subjects provided information about the recency, frequency and typical dose of their use of cannabis in the preceding 30 days. Urine samples were collected and analyzed for delta 9 THC metabolites. Recency of use was the best predictor of urine test result, but a measure of frequency of use significantly increased the proportion of variance accounted for. The results strongly supported the validity of self-reported cannabis use and indicate that valid self-reports of drug consumption can be obtained from multiple drug users in treatment.     

The effect of medical cannabis laws on juvenile cannabis use

BackgroundA number of states in the United States legally allow the use of cannabis as a medical therapy to treat an illness or to alleviate symptoms. Concern persists as to whether these types of laws are increasing juvenile recreational cannabis use. It is also plausible that medical cannabis laws engender an escalation of illicit non-cannabis drug use among juveniles because cannabis is frequently considered to be a gateway drug.MethodsThis study uses longitudinal data drawn from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health for the 50 U.S. states and a cross-sectional pooled-time series research design to investigate the effect of medical cannabis laws on juvenile cannabis use and on juvenile non-cannabis illicit drug use. Our study period encompasses five measurement periods calibrated in two-year intervals (2002–2003 to 2010–2011). This research design is advantageous in that it affords us the ability not only to assess the effect of the implementation of medical cannabis laws on juvenile drug use, but also to consider other state-specific factors that may explain variation in drug use that cannot be accounted for using a single time series.ResultsFindings show that medical cannabis laws amplify recreational juvenile cannabis use. Other salient predictors of juvenile cannabis use at the state-level of analysis include perceived availability of cannabis, percent of juveniles skipping school, severity of perceived punishment for cannabis possession, alcohol consumption, percent of respondents with a father residing in household, and percent of families in the state receiving public assistance. There is little empirical evidence to support the view that medical cannabis laws affect juveniles’ use of illicit non-cannabis drugs.ConclusionBased on our findings, it seems reasonable to speculate that medical cannabis laws amplify juveniles’ use of cannabis by allaying the social stigma associated with recreational cannabis use and by placating the fear that cannabis use could potentially result in a negative health outcome.     

Stress-related factors in cannabis use and misuse: Implications for prevention and treatment

We examined the role of stress as a risk factor and motivation for cannabis use/misuse. A systematic review of studies gathered from PsychINFO and MEDLINE databases was conducted. Findings suggest that cannabis is commonly used as a stress-coping strategy. Negative life events, trauma, and maladaptive coping were all related to consumption. Cannabis use for stress-coping purposes was most evident when examining chronic as compared with experimental use. Although many individuals may be able to use cannabis without consequences, there appears to be a subset of individuals who experience greater life stress and who may be more likely to use for stress-coping purposes. These individuals may be at greatest risk for addiction. Chronic use may potentiate stress-related motivation to use/abuse cannabis and is associated with decision-making deficits and alterations in brain-stress pathways that may exacerbate compulsive drug seeking and sensitize individuals to stress-related drug use. Overall, stress-coping interventions and harm reduction focused on reducing the amount ingested may facilitate prevention and recovery efforts.     

Patterns of Drug Use Among Drug Misusers in Sweden. Gender Differences

The goal of the article is to provide information about polydrug abuse and drug misuse patterns in Sweden among women and men. The data has been taken from a 1998 national survey of “Heavy”/severe drug misuse in Sweden, project “MAX-98” (). The drug misusers were reported by various government agencies, including health services, social services, police, and correctional treatment facilities on a special form. One of the significant gender differences that emerged was that a greater percent of the women in the survey used and injected amphetamines, injected opiates, and used tranquilizers/sedatives, while a greater percent of the men smoked cannabis, smoked heroin, and misused alcohol. Furthermore, the most common combinations for both genders was amphetamines + cannabis, followed by amphetamines + heroin + cannabis. Alcohol played a large role for the narcotics users. Heroin as a primary drug has grown in the age groups under 35. The trends document that the use of ecstasy as well as chemical CNS-stimulating/hallucinogenic drugs has grown, that polydrug use has increased compared with earlier surveys, and that the methods of ingestion have changed. It is therefore more precise today to speak of different types of polydrug users than about users of exclusively one drug.     

自回归整合移动平均模型在医院药库采购预测中的应用

目的:探讨利用自回归整合移动平均模型(ARIMA)预测的采购新模式提高医院药库工作质量和效率。方法:采集2008年01～47周药品消耗数据,根据ABC分类法确定A类品种,并从中随机抽样10个品种,基于2008年01～44周的数据,应用SPSS13软件作ARIMA模型建模拟合,用所得到的模型作45～47周预测,并比较实际消耗数据。结果:利用ARIMA模型预测的采购件数与实际消耗数基本相符,数量预测准确率为89.19%,整件预测准确率为97.56%。结论:ARIMA模型能够很好地拟合并可获得较高的中短期预测精度,能够为采购提供科学合理的决策支持,做到既不断货也不积压,合理控制药品库存量。     

Drug issues affecting Chinese,Indian and Pakistani people living in Greater Glasgow

This paper describes research on drug issues affecting Chinese, Indian and Pakistani people living in Greater Glasgow. There were two strands: (i) a questionnaire-based survey of young people and focus groups; (ii) interviews with young people and adults. The primary aims were to gather prevalence data and to investigate perceptions about current service provision. A methodological discussion also takes place as to the relationship between the quantitative and qualitative data gathered.

Results show that use and misuse of drugs is reportedly present and increasing among young people in the three ethnic groups, with cannabis being the most prevalent drug. However, prevalence is still generally reported at lower levels than reported for the general population. Predictors of consumption include gender (male consumption higher), non-importance of religion, and higher consumption among friends from the same (self-identified) ethnic group.

Service provision was felt to be insensitive to issues affecting Chinese, Indian and Pakistani groups. Specific issues (religious, cultural, social) that need to be addressed by service providers are outlined. A general conclusion is that choices should be available, and stereotypes and general assumptions should be avoided.     

Drug issues affecting Chinese, Indian and Pakistani people living in Greater Glasgow

This paper describes research on drug issues affecting Chinese, Indian and Pakistani people living in Greater Glasgow. There were two strands: (i) a questionnaire-based survey of young people and focus groups; (ii) interviews with young people and adults. The primary aims were to gather prevalence data and to investigate perceptions about current service provision. A methodological discussion also takes place as to the relationship between the quantitative and qualitative data gathered.

Results show that use and misuse of drugs is reportedly present and increasing among young people in the three ethnic groups, with cannabis being the most prevalent drug. However, prevalence is still generally reported at lower levels than reported for the general population. Predictors of consumption include gender (male consumption higher), non-importance of religion, and higher consumption among friends from the same (self-identified) ethnic group.

Service provision was felt to be insensitive to issues affecting Chinese, Indian and Pakistani groups. Specific issues (religious, cultural, social) that need to be addressed by service providers are outlined. A general conclusion is that choices should be available, and stereotypes and general assumptions should be avoided.     

Cannabis consumption initiation among adolescents: A longitudinal study

This study aimed to investigate factors related to initiation of cannabis consumption among adolescents. A questionnaire was administered to 2043 14–15-year-olds from Barcelona who were followed-up and re-interviewed after 15 months. A bivariate analysis was performed to identify the factors associated with consumption, and multivariate logistic regression was carried out to model cannabis initiation. Among matched students, 23.7% of non-users at baseline had started to consume 15 months later (23.0% boys and 24.2% girls). Among those who had reported occasional cannabis use, 30.3% reported consumption during the previous month at the follow-up survey. Factors associated with cannabis initiation among boys and girls were smoking, risky alcohol use and intention to consume cannabis. Among boys, other associated factors were frequenting bars or discotheques and not having organized activities in leisure time. Among girls, another risk factor for initiation was having cannabis-using friends. Cannabis initiation was facilitated by legal drug use, favorable attitudes and context-related variables. These results highlight the role of behavioral and contextual variables and support the importance of reinforcing social skills in preventive programs.     

Cannabis Dependence as a Primary Drug Use–Related Problem: The Case for Harm Reduction–Oriented Treatment Options

Few studies have focused on cannabis dependence as compared to other drugs more commonly acknowledged as presenting a substantial need for treatment. This paper presents findings from a 2004–2005 study of drug user treatment clients in Southern Ontario, Canada. Clients with cannabis (n = 128) or cocaine (n = 300) as their primary drug problem were compared on psychosocial and demographic characteristics, drug effects, and clinical impairment. There are more similarities than differences between groups, with DAST and DSM scores showing high rates of “dependence” and reported symptoms of “abuse.” However, cannabis consistently scored lower on these items, supporting the idea of a continuum of risk on which its rank compared with other potentially misused drugs holds across a wide range of symptoms of impairment. The less disruptive nature of cannabis use–related problems poses greater challenges for drug user treatment providers guided by strict abstinence agendas. The authors call for the expansion of harm reduction treatment options and educational initiatives beyond primary prevention that acknowledge benefits of moderate controlled use when addressing cannabis misuse.     

Correlates of driving under the influence of cannabis

BACKGROUND: Identifying cannabis users who are most at risk of driving under the influence of cannabis (DUIC) has important implications for drug treatment and prevention efforts. This paper examined correlates of DUIC among a purposive sample of recent cannabis users. METHODS: Interviews were carried out among a cross-sectional sample of 320 Australian cannabis users. Past-year prevalence of DUIC (without using alcohol or other drugs) was regressed against a range of potential predictor variables. RESULTS: Use of multiple drugs, believing that DUIC does not increase accident risk and cannabis dependence all predicted likelihood of DUIC. There was an interaction between age of first cannabis use and gender, whereby earlier onset cannabis use predicted DUIC but only among women. CONCLUSIONS: The correlates of drug driving reflected cannabis users' beliefs about the dangers of cannabis use as well as their patterns of drug consumption. The emergence of cannabis dependence and age of onset as predictors of DUIC suggests a clearly defined role for treatment and prevention efforts in reducing the potential harms associated with DUIC.     

A Comparison of Drug use and Dependence Between Blunt Smokers and Other Cannabis Users

Ethnographic studies have suggested that blunt smokers represent a subculture of cannabis users whose drug use is moderated by social norms. The objective of this study was to compare rates of cannabis dependence/abuse and nicotine dependence between blunt and other cannabis smokers. The sample included adolescents and young adults (n = 4348) who reported some form of past-month cannabis use in the 2004 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Compared to smokers who never used blunts, blunt smokers had significantly greater odds of being dependent on cannabis and tobacco. Associations with cannabis dependence/abuse remained statistically significant with adjustment for smoking frequency and demographic characteristics. These findings highlight the need for differentiating types of cannabis users in epidemiologic studies. The study's limitations are noted.     

Drug Use in a Rural Secondary School in Kenya

ABSTRACT

Alcohol abuse and alcohol-related use problems among adolescents are highly prevalent and are a major concern worldwide. This study estimated the prevalence of drug abuse, knowledge about drug abuse and its effect on psychosocial well-being and induced behavioral problems among students of a public rural secondary school that admitted both girls and boys which offered both boarding and day school facilities. The students filled out a self-reporting substance use tool which measures the prevalence, frequency, and general patterns of substance use. Alcohol, tobacco, khat (catha edulis) and bhang (cannabis) were the most commonly reported substance of use, with user prevalence rates of 5.2%, 3.8%, 3.2%, and 1.7%, respectively. Tobacco use was initiated at 10 years, while cannabis, hard drugs, khat, and alcohol were initiated at 11, 12, 13, and 15 years of age, respectively. Among the students 71% were aware that their schoolmates were on drugs and it was known by 49.8%, 41.7%, 37.6%, 44.3%, and 32.4% of these students that using alcohol, tobacco, khat, cannabis, and hard drugs, respectively was a behavioral problem in the school. Three quarters of the students were aware that use of drugs was harmful to their health, with majority (78.6%) indicating that drug users need help to stop the drug use behavior. However most (73.6%) of the students suggested drug users in school should be punished. The drug use behavioral problems included school dropout, poor scholastic attainment, drunken driving, delinquency, and adolescence pregnancy which threaten the stability of the education system, family as an institution (family difficulties) and society at large. Therefore, teachers have an added burden of playing an active role in guidance and counselling the survivors of drug abuse, a pandemic facing teaching institutions apart from instilling knowledge.     

Individual dollar expenditure and earnings from cannabis in the New Zealand population

Introduction: High spending on illegal drug use can potentially provide insight into a range of drug related harm such as poor health, financial hardship, loss of opportunity, family neglect and income generating crime. Assessing the impact of high spending on drug use is complicated by the fact that many heavy drug users support their high expenditure on drug use through selling drugs. The aim of this paper is to estimate individual dollar expenditure and dollar earnings from cannabis in New Zealand.Methods: As part of the 2003 New Zealand national household drug survey, detailed data were collected on cannabis use and purchasing in the previous 12 months. Those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year were divided into two groups for further analysis: ‘cannabis buyers’ (i.e. those who only purchased sufficient cannabis for their own personal consumption needs); and ‘cannabis dealers’ (i.e. those who purchased large surpluses of cannabis for re-sale on to others).Results: Seventy-two percent of those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year were ‘cannabis buyers’ only. Cannabis buyers spent a mean of $817 (NZD) each on cannabis in the previous year (median $120). Cannabis dealers spent a mean of $5988 each on cannabis in the preceding year (median $1250). Once we accounted for projected earnings from selling surplus cannabis, half of the cannabis dealers achieved a mean net annual financial gain of $2739, and the remaining half were left with a mean net annual financial loss of only $350 over a year. Overall, 81% of all those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year had spent less than 5% of their gross annual personal income on cannabis, with 14% of these making a net financial gain. The proportion of income spent on cannabis was highest among those in the two lowest income earning groups, where approximately 8% spent 20% or more of their income on cannabis. Both cannabis buyers and cannabis dealers spending 10% or more of their income on cannabis were four times more likely to be unemployed than the wider population.Conclusions: For the vast majority of those who had purchased cannabis in the previous year, spending on cannabis had only a small impact on their total annual income levels. High spending on cannabis can potentially be substantially offset by earnings from selling surplus cannabis. High spending on cannabis had its greatest impact among low income earning groups where approximately one in 13 low income cannabis spenders were spending high proportions of their income on cannabis. There appeared to be some relationship between high cannabis spending and unemployment and this warrants further investigation.     

Psychosocial Correlates of Adolescent Cannabis Use: Data from the Italian Subsample of the Second International Self-Reported Delinquency Study

To provide a comprehensive picture of the whole spectrum of psychosocial factors potentially associated with adolescent cannabis use, bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess a variety of social, demographic, psychological, and behavioral correlates of last-month cannabis use and age of first use among 6,838 students. Results showed that only family problems, alcohol and/or other drug use/misuse, deviant behavior, and victimization were independently associated with either recent cannabis use or early onset of cannabis use when multiple, interacting factors were considered. Certain family and behavioral factors might be more important than other psychosocial correlates of adolescent cannabis use.     

Adolescents in transition: The role of workplace alcohol and other drug policies as a prevention strategy

Aims: To assess (1) the alcohol and other drug (AOD) consumption patterns of adolescent new entrants to the Australian workforce and (2) the association between these consumption patterns and workplace factors.

Methods: A cross-sectional survey of 300 first-year apprentices (aged 15-22 years) employed in South Australian workplaces was conducted.

Findings: More than 40% of apprentices surveyed reported cannabis and alcohol consumption patterns that placed them at risk of potential harm. In addition, 19% reported drinking alcohol and 6.7% reported using cannabis during work-related hours. Workplace alcohol availability and the existence of workplace AOD policies were significantly associated with apprentices' consumption patterns. Apprentices employed in workplaces where alcohol was available used alcohol more often than those reporting no alcohol availability at work. Apprentices reporting an alcohol policy at their workplace reported less alcohol use compared to apprentices reporting no policy. Apprentices reporting a drug policy at their workplace reported lower levels of cannabis and alcohol use compared to those reporting no policy.

Conclusions: Workplace factors, in particular workplace AOD policies, were significantly associated with adolescent AOD use both at and away from the workplace. These findings indicate that the workplace has potential as a setting for prevention strategies design to minimize AOD-related harms.     

Differentiating the Drug Normalization Framework: A Quantitative Assessment of Cannabis Use Patterns,Accessibility, and Acceptability Attitudes among University Undergraduates

Background/Objectives: The drug normalization framework investigates the social integration of substance use. This article contributes a quantitative assessment of cannabis normalization as differentiated by social location predictors. Methods: Logistic and zero-inflated negative binomial regression models assess three areas of cannabis normalization: accessibility, acceptability, and recent use. Peer network cannabis use prevalence, gender, nativity, campus locale and living arrangement are explored as focal predictors of variation in normalization among 1,713 cannabis using and nonusing undergraduate students in Canada. Results: Women report lower odds of positive cannabis acceptability attitudes. While women report lower rates of recent cannabis use, gender is not a significant predictor for lifetime prevalence. Being a recent immigrant significantly predicts lower recent use, lower odds of favorable attitudes to cannabis, and reduced accessibility in comparison to students born in Canada. Longer-term immigrants do not show significant differences from students born in Canada on accessibility and acceptability, suggesting a substance use acculturation effect. Lower peer cannabis use prevalence exhibits a protective effect against use. In comparison to students who report that “some” of their peer network uses cannabis, those with “all” users in their network exhibit lower acceptability attitudes. This suggests a threshold relationship between peer use prevalence and acceptability. Conclusions/Importance: This article provides a data point for assessing future shifts in cannabis normalization prior to impending changes in Canadian drug policy that will legalize recreational cannabis use. Results show that normalization components of recent use, acceptability, and accessibility are differentiated by gender, nativity, and peer network cannabis use prevalence.     

Drug Use and Sources of Drug Information in a 12-16-year-old School Sample

A sample of 532 12-16-year-old school attendees self-completed a questionnaire about drug use, sources of drug information and attitudes to drugs. Some drugs were highly prevalent, particularly cannabis, hallucinogens (including ecstasy) and amphetamines, but injectable drugs were used by few and injected by only seven respondents. Cocaine use continues to be rare in Scotland. Use increased with age and males tended to use more than females. Low parental control was strongly related to exposure to drugs. Most respondents had received at least one talk about drugs, about half felt that they knew a lot about them and over a third felt that they had learned a lot from TV, parents, police, older friends, same age friends, teachers and newspapers. Those who had been more exposed to drugs tended to rely less on teachers and the police for information and more on older friends and siblings. Parents, siblings, medical and media sources were unrelated to drug exposure. Self-rated drug knowledge and attitudes were more related to exposure to drugs than to sources of drug information, suggesting that attitudes are largely acquired experientially. Results are discussed with respect to the content and delivery of drugs education.