Injection Risk Behavior among Women Syringe Exchangers in San Francisco

Women who inject drugs in cities where syringe exchange programs (SEPs) are well established may have different risks for HIV infection. In 1997, we interviewed 149 female syringe exchangers in San Francisco, CA, a city with high rates of injection drug use that is home to one of the largest and oldest SEPs in the United States. In this report, we describe their sociodemographics, health, and risk behavior, and we examine factors associated with recent syringe sharing. Fifty percent of respondents were women of color and the median age was 38 years. Most (86%) injected heroin and nearly half were currently homeless or had recently been incarcerated. One-third of all women reported needle sharing in the prior month. This was higher than the rate of needle sharing reported by a mixed gender sample of San Francisco exchangers in 1993, although it resembled the rate reported by a mixed gender sample in 1992. In a multivariate analysis, syringe sharing was associated with age, housing status, and sexual partnerships. Syringe sharers were more likely to be young, homeless, or have a sexual partner who was also an injection drug user. While wide access to sterile syringes is an important strategy to reduce HIV transmission among injection drug users (IDU), syringe exchange alone cannot eradicate risky injection by female IDU. Additional efforts to reduce risky injection practices should focus on younger and homeless female IDU, as well as address selective risk taking between sexual partners.     

Sexual Risk and HIV Infection Among Drug Users in New York City: A Pilot Study

Measures of sexual health were assessed during 2008–2009 in a New York City sample of 102 injection and noninjection users of heroin, cocaine, or crack. There was considerable overlap and transitioning between crack smoking and injecting. Crack users were also significantly more likely to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual than other drug users. In multivariate analysis, HIV infection was independently associated with crack use and with being gay or bisexual. In New York City, HIV prevention for drug users has focused on syringe access, safe injection, and drug user treatment, but further progress in HIV control will require strategies to address sexual health among people who use drugs. The study's limitations are noted.     

Correlates of Unsafe Syringe Acquisition and Disposal Among Injection Drug Users in Baltimore,Maryland

Because multi-person syringe use is the most common vehicle for HIV and hepatitis C virus transmission among injection drug users (IDUs), safe sources of sterile syringes and safe methods of disposal are necessary to curb these epidemics. We examined syringe acquisition and disposal in a cohort of IDUs in Baltimore. Between January 1, 1998 and December 31, 2001, 1034 participants reported on syringe acquisition at 3492 visits, and 953 reported on disposal at 2569 visits. Participants were 69.9% male, 93.9% African-American, and median age was 44. Syringes were acquired exclusively from unsafe sources at 32.3% of visits, while exclusively unsafe disposal was reported at 59.3% of visits. Significant correlates of unsafe acquisition were: attending shooting galleries, anonymous sex, sharing needles, smoking crack, and emergency room visits. Significant correlates of unsafe disposal were: injecting speedball, no methadone treatment, acquiring safely, and frequent injection. Having a primary source of medical care was associated with safe acquisition, but unsafe disposal. IDUs continue to acquire safely but dispose unsafely, especially among those with a primary source of care; this suggests that messages about safe disposal are not being disseminated as widely as those about acquisition. These data suggest the need for a more active program involving pharmacists, an expanded syringe access program, and better efforts to enhance safe disposal.     

Active and Former Injection Drug Users Report of HIV Risk Behaviors During Periods of Incarceration

American prisons have increasing numbers of inmates incarcerated for drug offenses. This population is at high risk for HIV-infection and may continue HIV transmission risk behaviors while incarcerated. We find that 31% of injection drug users with a history of imprisonment had used illicit drugs in prison, and nearly half of these persons had injected drugs while incarcerated. Male gender and number of times incarcerated were associated with drug use in prison. Interventions for drug-using prisoners that are advocated in some European prisons, such as needle exchange programs and methadone maintenance, need attention in the United States.     

Secondary Syringe Exchange Among Users of 23 California Syringe Exchange Programs

This article describes the secondary syringe exchange (SSE) practices of injection drug users (IDUs) attending 23 syringe exchange programs (SEPs) in the state of California during 2002 (n = 539). The sample was primarily heroin injecting, about two thirds male, half White and half other racial/ethnic groups. Participants were interviewed with a structured questionnaire that included items on sociodemographic factors, drug use practices, sexual practices, use of SEP and other social services, and satisfaction with SEP services. Interviews lasted about 30 minutes. SSE was highly prevalent: 75% of IDUs reported participating in SSE in the 6 months before interview. Program characteristics, such as legal status, SSE policy, and exchange policy, did not affect the prevalence of SSE among SEP clients. Infectious disease risk behaviors were significantly more common among SSE participants than nonparticipants. SSE participants were more likely to share syringes (p <. 001) and cookers (p <. 001) in the previous 6 months. SSE was significantly associated with being stuck with another person's syringe (needle-stick), a little-discussed “occupational hazard” of this practice. In multivariate analysis, the adjusted odds ratio of needle-stick among SSE participants was 2.8 (95% confidence interval, 1.3, 6.0). The high prevalence of SSE and the infectious disease risk associated with it warrant additional research to determine the causality of these associations. In the interim, SEPs should consider reinforcing HIV prevention education messages and training IDUs who engage in SSE in safe handling of biohazardous materials.     

Predictors of Sharing Drugs Among Injection Drug Users in the South Bronx: Implications for HIV Transmission

Abstract

HIV may be transmitted in the process of sharing injected drugs, even if all participants have their own syringes. In an effort to gain understanding of the extent and predictors of drug sharing, data were obtained via personal interviews with 1,024 injection drug users from four neighborhoods in the South Bronx. The relationship between drug-sharing and demographic, sexual, and drug-related variables was first examined in a bivariate analysis, and then via multiple logistic regression. Individuals who split drugs were more likely to be female, have had sex with a casual partner, exchanged sex for drugs or other needs, recently smoked crack cocaine, and shared needles. They were less likely to live or inject at their own home or have used a new needle the last time they injected. In a final logistic model, correlates of drug sharing included trading sex, injecting outside one's home, and using borrowed, rented or shared needles. Despite the lack of significance for gender in the final logistic model, females were at high risk of drug sharing because they constituted the great majority of those who exchanged sex. Continuing research is needed to understand how drug-sharing contributes to the spread of HIV and other infections, as are studies of approaches to reducing drug sharing. Prevention strategists and outreach organizations should be aware of the HIV risks inherent in the widespread practice of drug sharing.     

Methadone Maintenance Therapy and HIV Counseling and Testing are Associated with Lower frequency of Risky Behaviors Among Injection Drug Users in China

Three consecutive cross-sectional surveys were conducted among injection drug users (IDUs). Of 2,530 participants, 47.7% reported ever sharing needles, 78.2% having had unprotected sex in the last month, 34.4% not receiving either methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) or HIV voluntary counseling and testing (VCT), 4.8% ever receiving MMT-only, 36.6% ever receiving VCT-only, and 24.2% ever receiving both MMT and VCT. MMT-only and the combination of MMT and VCT had significant associations with needle sharing and on unprotected sexual behaviors. Effectively integrating VCT into MMT services is a logical way to maximize the impact of both interventions on risky behaviors among IDUs.     

Abscess and Self-Treatment Among Injection Drug Users at Four California Syringe Exchanges and Their Surrounding Communities

This study aimed to identify the prevalence and determinants of soft tissue infections and self-treatment among injection drug users (IDUs) in California. The study interviewed 864 IDUs in California using computer-assisted personal interview (CAPI) from 2003 to 2005. Multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to examine adjusted associations for recent abscess and abscess self-treatment. In these analyses, Latinos had higher odds than African Americans to self-treat, while IDUs reporting a usual place of health care had lower odds of self-treatment. Findings suggest an expansion of wound care facilities to mitigate the self-treatment of abscesses, with special consideration to Latinos.     

Decreased Odds of Injection Risk Behavior Associated With Direct Versus Indirect Use of Syringe Exchange: Evidence From Two California Cities

Background: While there is substantial evidence that syringe exchange programs (SEPs) are effective in preventing HIV among people who inject drugs (PWID), nearly all the evidence comes from PWID who obtain syringes from an SEP directly. Much less is known about the benefits of secondary exchange to PWID who get syringes indirectly from friends or acquaintances who visit an SEP for them. Objectives: We evaluated the effectiveness of direct versus indirect syringe exchange in reducing HIV-related high-risk injecting behavior among PWID in two separate studies conducted in Sacramento and San Jose, California, cities with quite different syringe exchange models. Methods: In both studies associations between direct and indirect syringe exchange and self-reported risk behavior were examined with multivariable logistic regression models. Study 1 assessed effects of a “satellite” home-delivery syringe exchange in Sacramento, while Study 2 evaluated a conventional fixed-site exchange in San Jose. Results: Multivariable analyses revealed 95% and 69% reductions, respectively, in high-risk injection associated with direct use of the SEPs in Sacramento and San Jose, and a 46% reduction associated with indirect use of the SEP in Sacramento. Conclusions/Importance: The very large effect of direct SEP use in Sacramento was likely due in part to home delivery of sterile syringes. While more modest effects were associated with indirect use, such use nevertheless is valuable in reducing the risk of HIV transmission of PWID who are unable or unwilling to visit a syringe exchange.     

HIV Among Drug Users at Beth Israel Medical Center,New York City,the First 25 Years

New York City experienced the first and largest HIV epidemic among injecting drug users (IDUs). Using data collected from IDUs entering the Beth Israel drug detoxification program, we trace the history of this epidemic from the mid-1970s through the early 2000s. The epidemic can best be described in terms of successive stages: (1) introduction and rapid transmission of HIV in the IDU population; (2) stabilization of HIV prevalence at a high level (over 50%); (3) a decline in incidence and prevalence, following large-scale implementation of syringe exchange programs; and (4) a sexual transmission phase, in which HIV prevalence is approximately equal among injecting and noninjecting heroin and cocaine users, and sexual transmission is more important than injecting-related transmission among IDUs. Given the current spread of HIV among IDUs in many places in the world, New York City provides a very strong example for implementation of large-scale comprehensive syringe exchange programs as early as possible in HIV epidemics among IDUs.     

Factors Associated With Buying and Selling Syringes Among Injection Drug Users in a Setting of One of North America's Largest Syringe Exchange Programs

We performed analyses of syringe buying and syringe selling among Vancouver injection drug users, recruited from May 1996 and followed up between November 2002 and August 2003, in the context of one of North America's largest syringe exchange programs (SEPs). An interviewer-administered questionnaire, approximately 45 minutes in duration, was used to collect information regarding risk factors for HIV infection and sources of sterile syringes. Seventy participants (15%) reported syringe selling and 122 (26%) reported syringe buying. Syringe sellers were more likely to be female, reside in unstable housing, need help injecting, and have visited the SEP at least once weekly. Syringe buyers were more likely to need help injecting, have difficulty finding new syringes, have binged on drugs, and have visited the SEP at least once weekly. Syringe buying most frequently occurred when the SEP was closed.     

Testing an Optimized Community-Based Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Risk Reduction and Antiretroviral Adherence Intervention for HIV-Infected Injection Drug Users

ABSTRACT

The authors conducted a preliminary study of the 4-session Holistic Health for HIV (3H+), which was adapted from a 12-session evidence-based risk reduction and antiretroviral adherence intervention. Improvements were found in the behavioral skills required to properly adhere to HIV medication regimens. Enhancements were found in all measured aspects of sex-risk reduction outcomes, including HIV knowledge, motivation to reduce sex-risk behavior, behavioral skills related to engaging in reduced sexual risk, and reduced risk behavior. Improvements in drug use outcomes included enhancements in risk reduction skills as well as reduced heroin and cocaine use. Intervention effects also showed durability from post-intervention to the follow-up assessment point. Females responded particularly well in terms of improvements in risk reduction skills and risk behavior. This study suggests that an evidence-based behavioral intervention may be successfully adapted for use in community-based clinical settings where HIV-infected drug users can be more efficiently reached.     

Organizational Issues in the Implementation of a Hospital-Based Syringe Exchange Program

Little published information exists to guide health care institutions in establishing syringe exchange program (SEP) services. To address this gap, this article discusses organizational issues encountered in the implementation of a hospital-based SEP in San Francisco, California (USA). Investigators collaborated with a community organization in implementing a county hospital-based SEP. SEP services integrated into a public hospital presented unique challenges directly related to their status as a health care institution. In the course of introducing SEP services into a hospital setting as part of a clinical trial, various ethical, legal, and logistical issues were raised. Based on these experiences, this paper provides guidance on how to integrate an SEP into a traditional health care institution.     

Cultural Factors Influencing HIV Risk Behavior Among Dominicans in New York City

Abstract

Hispanics in the United States have disproportionately high rates of HIV. The existence of ethnically and culturally diverse Hispanic communities indicate that qualitative research on HIV-related attitudes and behaviors within subgroups is needed to develop successful interventions. Findings from interviews with 20 Dominicans involved with drug-related or sex work-related activities in New York City are presented in terms of predominant cultural influences and specific issues regarding sex work, drug use, and HIV/AIDS. Several directions for interventions in the Dominican community are indicated, e.g., outreach efforts sensitive to the stigmatization of behaviors such as needle use and homosexuality, and the encouragement of sex workers to use condoms with their partners as well as clients. Additional information regarding such areas as contraception, family planning, and drug treatment services is needed within this community. A knowledge of cultural norms can serve as a foundation for these intervention and education efforts.     

Targeting HIV Prevention on African American Crack and Injection Drug Users

The use of drugs in the African American community, particularly crack cocaine, has been linked to sexual risk-taking behavior, which increases the likelihood that persons will become infected with Human Immuno Virus. In order to more fully understand risk-taking behavior and to target interventions among African American men and women, this study used data collected from 1277 individuals residing in Lexington and Louisville, Kentucky, who were recruited into National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) Cooperative Agreement Project from 1993 to 1998. The study compared African Americans treated for Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) (n = 292) with African Americans who reported never being treated for a STD (n = 504) with regard to HIV information, awareness, and the number of HIV tests between those with and without STD exposure. Additionally, we examine gender differences among African Americans who have and have not been exposed to STDs on risk behaviors and HIV knowledge, awareness, and testing. It was hypothesized that African American drug users in the STD group would engage in more risk behaviors than those who reported no STDs. Results indicated that individuals in both groups, the STD exposure group and the no STD group, engaged in similar HIV-risky behaviors. However, the STD group used a greater number of different drugs in their lifetime. The STD group reported they were more likely to get HIV and were more frequently tested for HIV. Females with an STD history were more likely to have been in drug user treatment and to perceive themselves as homeless. Both males and females in the STD group were more likely to report involvement in exchanging sex.     

Binge Drug Use Independently Predicts HIV Seroconversion Among Injection Drug Users: Implications for Public Health Strategies

Several studies have highlighted risk factors that cause HIV vulnerability among injection drug users (IDUs); these studies in turn have prompted public health officials to take action to minimize these risks. We sought to evaluate the potential association between binge drug use and HIV seroconversion and, subsequently, risk factors associated with binge drug use among a cohort of IDUs. To do this, we performed analyses of (1) associations with HIV seroconversion and (2) associations with binge drug use among participants enrolled in the Vancouver Injection Drug Users Study (VIDUS), a prospective cohort of IDU. Because serial measures for each individual were available, we undertook a time-updated Cox regression analysis to detect associations with HIV incidence and variables potentially associated with binge drug use were evaluated by using generalized estimating equations (GEE). Overall, 1548 IDU were enrolled into the VIDUS cohort between May 1996 and May 2003. There were 1013 individuals who were HIV seronegative at enrollment and had at least one follow-up visit; 125 (12%) became HIV positive during the study period for a cumulative incidence rate of 14% at 64 months after enrollment. In the final multivariate model, binge drug use [Adjusted Hazards Ratio: 1.61 (CI: 1.12, 2.31)] was independently associated with HIV seroconversion. In subanalyses, when we evaluated associations with binge drug use in GEE analyses, borrowing [Odds Ratio (OR): 153 (CI: 1.33–1.76)] and lending [OR: 1.73 (CI: 1.50–1.98)] syringes, sex trade work [OR: 1.14 (CI: 1.01–1.29)], frequent cocaine [OR: 2.34 (CI: 2.11–2.60)] and heroin [OR: 1.29 (CI: 1.17–1.43)] injection were independently associated with binge drug use and methadone [OR: 0.80 (CI: 0.71–0.89)] was protective against binge drug use. Our study identified an independent association between binge drug use and HIV incidence and demonstrated several high-risk drug practices associated with bingeing. Given the unaddressed public health risks associated with bingeing, a public health response protocol must be developed to minimize the personal and public health risks associated with the binge use of drugs.     

The Relationship Between Housing Status and HIV Risk Among Active Drug Users: A Qualitative Analysis

This paper examines the relationship between housing status and HIV risk using longitudinal, qualitative data collected in 2004–2005, from a purposeful sample of 65 active drug users in a variety of housed and homeless situations in Hartford, Connecticut. These data were supplemented with observations and in-depth interviews regarding drug use behavior collected in 2001–2005 to evaluate a peer-led HIV prevention intervention. Data reveal differences in social context within and among different housing statuses that affect HIV risk or protective behaviors including the ability to carry drug paraphernalia and HIV prevention materials, the amount of drugs in the immediate environment, access to subsidized and supportive housing, and relationships with those with whom drug users live. Policy implications of the findings, limitations to the data, and future research are discussed.     

Sexual HIV/HSV-2 Risk Among Drug Users in New York City: An HIV Testing and Counseling Intervention

Undiagnosed and untreated sexually transmitted infections are highly prevalent among users of heroin, crack, cocaine, and amphetamines. Between 2008 and 2009, 58 heroin, cocaine, and crack users in New York City who reported unprotected vaginal and anal sex with more than one partner in the past 30 days were enrolled in an HIV testing and counseling intervention. Four weeks post intervention, increases were found for condom use and STI knowledge. Reductions were noted for safe-sex risk fatigue, number of same-and opposite-sex partners, and days when drugs were injected. Brief but intense counseling interventions can reduce HIV risk among high-risk populations.