HIV Heterosexual Sexual Risk From Injecting Drug Users Among HIV-Seronegative Noninjecting Heroin Users

Noninjecting heroin users (NIUs) were recruited in New York City during 1996–2003. Cumulative logistic regression was used to analyze the correlates of HIV sexual risk from injecting drug users (IDUs) among HIV seronegative NIUs engaging in heterosexual vaginal or anal sex in the past 30 days (N = 347). Participants were 67% male and 70% African American or Latino, with a mean age of 32.6 years. Hierarchical categories of IDU partner sexual risk included (1) no unprotected sex and no IDU sex partners (21%), (2) unprotected sex but not with IDUs (55%), (3) IDU sex partners but no unprotected sex with them (6%), and (4) unprotected sex with IDUs (17%). Independent correlates (p < .05) of HIV sexual risk from IDU partners included female versus male gender (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 2.01), ex-IDU versus never IDU (AOR = 1.90), and lower versus higher perceived social distance from IDUs (AOR = 1.60). Interventions should target female NIUs, ex-IDUs, and NIU members of IDU social and sexual networks. The study's limitations are noted.     

Prevalence and Correlates of Former Injection Drug Use Among Young Noninjecting Heroin Users in Chicago

Noninjecting heroin users (NIHU) that were 16–30 years old were street recruited in Chicago between 2002 and 2005 to examine factors associated with having ever injected. Participants completed computerized self-administered interviews and provided specimens for HIV and hepatitis serotesting. Of 689 NIHU, 51.2% were non-Hispanic Black, 64.4% were male, and the median age was 25 years. Former injection was reported by 17.9%; of those, 66.7% injected <10 times. Multivariable analysis identified individual and social factors that place young NIHU at increased risk of injection. Targeted interventions are necessary to prevent transitions to injection and reduce transmission of HIV and viral hepatitis infections. The study's limitations are noted.     

Gender Differences in Drug Use,Sexually Transmitted Diseases,and Risky Sexual Behavior Among Arrested Youths

Data was collected on arrested youths processed at a centralized intake facility, including youths released back to the community and those placed in secure detention. This article reports the results of a test of a structural model involving newly arrested male and female youths' sexually transmitted diseases (STD) test results, urine analysis results for recent cocaine and marijuana use, and self-reported engaging in risky sexual behavior. The across-gender, multiple-group model involved (1) a confirmatory factor analysis of these variables, reflecting a latent variable labeled Risk, (2) a regression of Risk on the youths' age, and (3) an examination of the covariance between Risk and the youths' race and seriousness of arrest charge. Results indicate the youths' STD status, drug use, and reported risky sexual behavior are interrelated phenomena, similarly experienced across gender. Age was the only correlate of Risk status that demonstrated a significant gender group difference. The youths' race and seriousness of arrest charges did not significantly affect Risk, regardless of gender. Research and policy implications of the findings are discussed.     

Alcohol Use Severity and Sexual Risk Behavior Among Female Substance Users

Background: Substance use has been identified as one of the leading factors related to HIV transmission in the United States. The association of problematic drinking with sexual risk behavior puts individuals at greater risk for HIV transmission. This may be of particular concern for women given that approximately 66% of new HIV infections occurring through heterosexual transmission are female. Objectives: To investigate alcohol use severity and sexual risk behavior among females who use heavy, illicit drugs. Methods: Female substances users (N = 251; M_age = 31.90, SD = 7.67; 63.7% Black) self-reported past month alcohol use and lifetime sexual risk behaviors with both casual and steady sex partners. Results: Problematic alcohol users were more likely to use noninjection drugs and less likely to use injection drugs than abstainers and more likely than moderate alcohol users to use alcohol before/during sex with a steady partner. White problematic alcohol users were less likely to use injection drugs before/during sex with a steady partner than abstainers. Black problematic alcohol users were more likely to use non-injection and alcohol than moderate alcohol users before/during sex with steady partners. Conclusions: The current study extends the existing literature by taking a closer look at the role of alcohol use severity in sexual risk taking behavior of Black and White female substance users, a particularly vulnerable group for HIV transmission.     

Correlates of Trichomonas vaginalis Among Middle Age and Older Adults Who Use Drugs

Background: Recent studies have reported high rates of Trichomonas vaginalis among middle age and older adults. Though trichomoniasis risk factors in this age cohort remain largely unknown, illicit drug use has been associated with increased incidence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The number of mid-older adults using illicit drugs has increased significantly in recent years suggesting the need to understand the relationship between drug use and STIs in this age cohort. Objectives: This study examined the relationship between drug use, sexual-risk behaviors, and biologically confirmed T. vaginalis in a sample of mid-older and younger adults who reported recent drug use. Methods: The cross-sectional design examined the relationship between past 6-month drug use, sexual risk-behaviors, and PCR-confirmed T. vaginalis in 264 adults age 18–64 who were recruited from Baltimore, Maryland. These relationships were also explored in the age-stratified sample among those 18–44 years (“younger”) and individuals 45+ years (“mid-older”). Results: Trichomoniasis prevalence did not differ significantly between younger (18.8%) and mid-older (19.1%) adults. Mid-older adults that tested positive for T. vaginalis were more likely to have used marijuana and crack in the past 6 months. Among younger adults, there were no associations between trichomoniasis and past 6-month drug use and sexual-risk behavior. Conclusions/Importance: Age- and drug-related immune decline is hypothesized to contribute to increase susceptibility to T. vaginalis in mid-older adults. Broad screening for trichomoniasis, particularly among older adults who are often not regarded as at risk for STIs, is needed to control this often asymptomatic infection.     

Cocaine Use and Delinquent Behavior Among High-Risk Youths: A Growth Model of Parallel Processes

We report the results of a parallel-process, latent growth model analysis examining the relationships between cocaine use and delinquent behavior among youths. The study examined a sample of 278 justice-involved juveniles completing at least one of three follow-up interviews as part of a National Institute on Drug Abuse–funded study.

The results of our analysis of the cocaine use and delinquency parallel-process model highlighted that these phenomena are mutually related experiences over time. Particularly noteworthy is the significant, positive relationship between cocaine trend and delinquency trend: as the rate of change in cocaine use increases, a corresponding change occurs in engaging in delinquent behavior. Implications for policy and intervention service needs are discussed.     

Correlates of Trichomonas Prevalence Among Street-Recruited,Drug-Using Women Enrolled in a Randomized Trial

Objectives. Substance-using women need prevention technologies and programs to reduce risk of HIV/sexually transmitted infection (STI). We examined STI prevalence and identified risk correlates for female drug users. Methods. We used interviewer-administered and computer-assisted surveys, and tested specimens for four, treatable STIs (trichomonas, early syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia) on 198 HIV-seronegative, street-recruited, substance-using women enrolled in a randomized trial to reduce HIV/STI risk. Results. Most women were crack users (88%), reported sex exchange (80%) and were not in drug user treatment (74%). Two-thirds were African-American and nearly all were unemployed. Protection during sex was infrequent. African-American women reported fewer unprotected sex acts and fewer sexual partners, but greater crack use and more sex-for exchange, than whites or Hispanics. Trichomonas prevalence (36.9%) exceeded that for chlamydia (3.5%), syphilis (1.5%), and gonorrhea (0%). In multivariate logistic regression, having a primary and casual partner more than doubled (AOR 2.86) the risk of having trichomonas and being African-American raised the risk by more than 8 times (AOR 8.45). Conclusions. African-American, drug-using women, and women with multiple partner types, are in urgent need of effective STI/HIV prevention interventions.     

肝癌高发区不同人群HBV,HCV感染率及其与肝癌的关系

了解国内肝癌高发区ＨＢＶ、ＨＣＶ的流行情况及其与肝癌发病的关系。方法：在肝癌高发的江苏 省启东地区,对不同人群进行血清ＨＢｓＡｇ（固相放免法）、抗－ＨＣＶ（酶免法）、ＡＦＰ（固相放免法）测定,结果进行统计 学处理。结果：肝癌、肝炎、献血员三组人群中ＨＢｓＡｇ　及抗－ＨＣＶ阳性率分别为８６．０２％与７．５３％,５９．８１％与 ０．９３％,４．０４％与４．０４％。血清ＨＢｓＡｇ及ＡＦＰ含量与抗－ＨＣＶ间无明显关系。结论：国内肝癌高发区人群主要感 染ＨＢＶ并与肝癌发生有关,ＨＣＶ感染并不重要。     

孕期乙肝病毒宫内感染的临床观察

目的：探讨乙型肝炎病毒在生殖生育过程中传播给下一代的途径及相关因素和阻断方法。方法：对498例乙肝病毒表面抗原阳性的产妇所产新生儿于生后即刻取股静脉血，检测其乙肝病毒标志物和HBV-DNA，并根据孕产妇HBVDNA检测结果分为阳性和阴性组，再根据孕妇产前使用乙肝免疫球蛋白(HBIG)情况分组观察使用效果。结果：283例HBV-DNA阳性组新生儿宫内感染率为39．6％；215例HBV-DNA阴性组为13．5％。两组比较差别有统计学意义。孕期是否使用HBIG两组宫内感染率差别无统计学意义。结论：宫内感染与孕妇HBV—DNA是否阳性有关，孕期使用HBIG对阻断宫内感染无效。     

Negative Self-Perceptions and Sexual Risk Behavior Among Heterosexual Methamphetamine Users

This research examined the relationship between negative self-perceptions and sexual risk behavior in a sample of 156 heterosexually identified, methamphetamine users from San Diego, California. The Beck Depression Inventory and the Self Esteem Rating Scale, respectively, were used to assess depression and negative self-perceptions. Measures of sexual risk behavior and methamphetamine use were developed specifically for this research. Data were gathered in 2001–2002. Participants were primarily male (76%), Caucasian (56%), never married (51%), and unemployed (73%), with a mean age of 39.1 years. Participants with high levels of negative self-perceptions evidenced the greatest degree of sexual risk behavior, including significantly more unprotected vaginal sex and a larger number of sexual partners as compared to individuals with low levels of negative self-perceptions. In cross-sectional analyses, negative self-perceptions predicted intensity of methamphetamine use and depressive symptoms. However, neither of these variables were found to mediate the relationship between negative self-perceptions and sexual risk behavior. Findings are discussed in relation to the need for further research into the role of negative self-perceptions as a determinant of sexual risk behavior among methamphetamine users.     

Sexual Risk and HIV Infection Among Drug Users in New York City: A Pilot Study

Measures of sexual health were assessed during 2008–2009 in a New York City sample of 102 injection and noninjection users of heroin, cocaine, or crack. There was considerable overlap and transitioning between crack smoking and injecting. Crack users were also significantly more likely to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual than other drug users. In multivariate analysis, HIV infection was independently associated with crack use and with being gay or bisexual. In New York City, HIV prevention for drug users has focused on syringe access, safe injection, and drug user treatment, but further progress in HIV control will require strategies to address sexual health among people who use drugs. The study's limitations are noted.     

Medical Illness and Comorbidities in Drug Users: Implications for Addiction Pharmacotherapy Treatment

Providing effective medical care to those with substance use disorders can be a challenge to clinicians. In this article, we briefly summarize issues that occur frequently in the medical treatment of substance users. The focus of this article is twofold. The first is to briefly summarize common co-occurring medical illnesses in those manifesting substance use disorders with an emphasis on issues related to providing effective treatment for these diseases in this population. Using specific examples of frequently occurring comorbid medical illness in substance users, including infectious diseases (hepatitis C and HIV disease), sexually transmitted diseases, and pregnancy as examples, the complexities of medical care for this population is demonstrated. Second, this article addresses some of the difficulties encountered in pharmacotherapy aimed specifically at treatment of substance use disorders. For example, difficulties in managing concomitant opiate therapy in those requiring medications for medical illness that may have strong and adverse interactions with opiates are addressed. Adverse events reported for some substance use disorder pharmacotherapies are also highlighted. We conclude with a brief review of models of care that have been effective in addressing the needs of this challenging population that can provide additional means for enhancing the clinical care of substance users.     

Targeting HIV Prevention on African American Crack and Injection Drug Users

The use of drugs in the African American community, particularly crack cocaine, has been linked to sexual risk-taking behavior, which increases the likelihood that persons will become infected with Human Immuno Virus. In order to more fully understand risk-taking behavior and to target interventions among African American men and women, this study used data collected from 1277 individuals residing in Lexington and Louisville, Kentucky, who were recruited into National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) Cooperative Agreement Project from 1993 to 1998. The study compared African Americans treated for Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) (n = 292) with African Americans who reported never being treated for a STD (n = 504) with regard to HIV information, awareness, and the number of HIV tests between those with and without STD exposure. Additionally, we examine gender differences among African Americans who have and have not been exposed to STDs on risk behaviors and HIV knowledge, awareness, and testing. It was hypothesized that African American drug users in the STD group would engage in more risk behaviors than those who reported no STDs. Results indicated that individuals in both groups, the STD exposure group and the no STD group, engaged in similar HIV-risky behaviors. However, the STD group used a greater number of different drugs in their lifetime. The STD group reported they were more likely to get HIV and were more frequently tested for HIV. Females with an STD history were more likely to have been in drug user treatment and to perceive themselves as homeless. Both males and females in the STD group were more likely to report involvement in exchanging sex.     

A Perfect Storm: Crack Cocaine,HSV-2, and HIV Among Non-Injecting Drug Users in New York City

Prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection has reached 16% among non-injecting drug users (NIDU) in New York City, an unusually high prevalence for a predominantly heterosexual population that does not inject drugs. Using a long-term study (1983–2011, >7,000 subjects) among persons entering the Beth Israel drug-treatment programs in New York City, we identified factors that contributed to this high prevalence: a preexisting HIV epidemic among injectors, a crack cocaine epidemic, mixing between injectors and crack users, policy responses not centered on public health, and herpes-simplex virus 2 facilitating HIV transmission. Implications for avoiding high prevalence among NIDU in other areas are discussed.     

Nontobacco Substance Use,Sexual Abuse,HIV, and Sexually Transmitted Infection Among Street Children in Kolkata,India

A community-based cross-sectional study among 554 Kolkata city street children assessed nontobacco substance use and sexual abuses along with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/ sexually transmitted infections (STIs) during 2007, using conventional cluster sampling technique for “hard-to-reach population” with a field-tested questionnaire and the collection of a blood sample for HIV and syphilis serology testing as a composite indicator of STIs. The reported prevalence of nontobacco substance use was 30%; 9% reported having been sexually abused. Some factors (age, lack of contact with family, orphan children, night stay at public place, etc.) were documented to be associated with substance use and sexual abuses. Seroprevalence of HIV was found to be 1% and that of STIs was 4%. This 1% HIV seroprevalence in street children is a matter of concern. Community-based intervention is necessary for them. The study's limitations are noted.     

核苷和核苷酸类药物在慢性乙型肝炎病毒感染者中的应用及耐药突变分析

目的 分析慢性乙型肝炎病毒(hepatitis B virus,HBV)感染者核苷和核苷酸类药物(nucleoside and nucleotide analogs,NAs)发生耐药后的突变模式,为规范抗病毒治疗和耐药管理提供参考价值。方法 选取2010年1月—2014年12月发生耐药突变的375例慢性HBV感染者的临床资料,采用实时荧光定量PCR方法对耐药患者血清HBV聚合酶基因逆转录酶区进行扩增,对PCR产物进行直接测序。结果 拉米夫定(lamivudine,LAM)耐药组和阿德福韦酯(adefovir dipivoxil,ADV)耐药组基因型耐药伴生物化学突破的构成比均高于恩替卡韦(entecavir,ETV)耐药组(χ²=12.111,P<0.001;χ²=7.992,P=0.005)。253例LAM耐药者中有16种突变类型,单位点突变134例(52.96%),以rtM204I 最多见,多位点突变119例(47.04%),以rtLl80M+M204V最多见;在rtM204突变模式中,rtM204I为单位点突变模式的主要位点(χ²=154.555,P<0.001),rtM204V为多位点突变模式的主要位点(χ²=4.317,P=0.038)。88例ADV耐药者中有24种突变类型,单位点突变61例(69.32%),以rtA181T最多见,多位点突变27例(30.68%),以rtL180M+rtM204V+rtA181T最多见;无论是单位点突变模式还是多位点突变模式,相对于rtN236T,rtA181T均是主要突变位点(χ²=42.749,P<0.001;χ²=6.033,P=0.014)。34例ETV耐药者中有5种突变类型,均为多位点突变,以rtL180M+rtM204V+rtS202I/G最多见;相对于rtT184,rtS202为主要突变位点(χ²=5.882,P=0.015)。ADV耐药者突变模式的复杂性最高,其次为LAM耐药者,最低为ETV耐药者。结论 NAs的耐药突变复杂多样,尤其是ADV,应接受和执行优选和优化治疗策略,以实现预防耐药,减少或避免挽救治疗。     

Comparing Injection and Non-Injection Routes of Administration for Heroin,Methamphetamine, and Cocaine Users in the United States

ABSTRACT

Research examining the demographic and substance use characteristics of illicit drug use in the United States has typically failed to consider differences in routes of administration or has exclusively focused on a single route of administration—injection drug use. Data from National Survey on Drug Use and Health were used to compare past-year injection drug users and non-injection drug users' routes of administration of those who use the three drugs most commonly injected in the United States: heroin, methamphetamine, and cocaine. Injection drug users were more likely than those using drugs via other routes to be older (aged 35 and older), unemployed, possess less than a high school education, and reside in rural areas. IDUs also exhibited higher rates of abuse/dependence, perceived need for substance abuse treatment, and co-occurring physical and psychological problems. Fewer differences between IDUs and non-IDUs were observed for heroin users compared with methamphetamine or cocaine users.     

HIV and HCV Prevalence and Gender-Specific Risk Profiles of Crack Cocaine Smokers and Dual Users of Injection Drugs

The present analysis compares HIV and HCV prevalence and associated gender-specific risk patterns of dual users (i.e., crack smokers who inject drugs) and never injectors. Two logistic models, one restricted to female and the other to male crack smokers, were constructed to identify gender-specific risk factors associated with dual use (p < 0.05). Of 437 crack smokers, 246 (56%) were dual users while 191 (44%) were never injectors. In a fitted logistic regression model, dual use among female crack smokers was associated with HCV infection (adjusted OR = 4.65, 95% CI: 1.92–9.70), exchanging sex for money, drugs, or shelter while using crack (aOR = 4.47, 95% CI: 1.56–12.80), having a casual partner who injects (aOR = 4.13, 95% CI: 1.05–16.26), having equipment broken or confiscated by police without being arrested (aOR = 3.66, 95% CI: 1.43–9.34), and HIV infection (aOR = 2.07, 95% CI: 1.18–5.96). Among male crack smokers, dual use was associated with HCV infection (aOR = 5.34, 95% CI: 2.10–13.18), exchanging sex for money, drugs, or shelter (aOR = 3.25, 95% CI: 1.59–6.65), crack use history ≥ 5 years (aOR = 2.16, 95% CI: 1.29–3.63), and smoking in a group of unknown people (such as crack houses, alleys; aOR = 1.70, 95% CI: 1.10–2.81). These findings highlight the need for evidence-based prevention and harm reduction initiatives that directly targeting crack cocaine smokers, with particular attention given to female dual users of injection drugs.     

Tolerance and Sensitization to the Effects of Cocaine Use in Humans: A Retrospective Study of Long-Term Cocaine Users in Philadelphia

In the effort to develop medications to combat addiction, researchers have developed models that attempt to describe the neurobiological process of cocaine dependence. It has not, however, yet been determined which of these models, if any, best fits the behaviors and experiences of patients. This project retrospectively evaluated changes in patients' experiences with cocaine over time in order to clarify the model that best fits clinical observations. In 2005 and 2007, 100 treatment-seeking, long-term cocaine users were recruited from an urban university-based treatment center in Philadelphia, PA, United States. Each participant was administered the “Cocaine History Questionnaire” which asked them to describe the initiation and escalation of their cocaine usage, changing reward perceptions, and effects of intoxication at certain points in their drug use careers. This data was then analyzed using repeated measures, examining the within subject differences in reported information over the time points. We found evidence that while the amount of drug used increases, self-reported euphoria decreases while negative symptoms associated with cocaine use also increase. The data provide preliminary evidence for the hedonic dysregulation model of addiction. Limitations and implications of the study are discussed in the conclusion.     

“We as Drug Addicts Need that Program”: Insight from Rural African American Cocaine Users on Designing a Sexual Risk Reduction Intervention for Their Community

This focused ethnographic study examines data collected in 2007 from four gender- and age-specific focus groups (FGs) (N = 31) to inform the development of a sexual risk reduction intervention for African American cocaine users in rural Arkansas. A semi-structured protocol was used to guide audio-recorded FGs. Data were entered into Ethnograph and analyzed using constant comparison and content analysis. Four codes with accompanying factors emerged from the data and revealed recommendations for sexual risk reduction interventions with similar populations. Intervention design implications and challenges, study limitations, and future research are discussed. The study was supported by funds from the National Institute of Nursing Research (P20 NR009006-01) and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (1R01DA024575-01 and F31 DA026286-01).