趋化因子受体拮抗剂对大鼠小肠移植的影响

背景：排斥反应的发生是导致小肠移植失败的主要原因,趋化因子及其受体介导的细胞免疫在急性排斥反应中具有重要作用,以趋化因子受体为靶位的治疗方案,可能为临床小肠移植的免疫治疗提供借鉴。 目的：观察趋化因子RANTES（Met-RANTES）对同种异体大鼠异位小肠移植术后移植物的存活时间和组织病理学改变的影响,以及与小剂量他克莫司的协同效应。 设计、时间及地点：随机数字表法区组,对照观察实验,于2003-09/2005-03在解放军第四军医大学西京医院胃肠外科实验室完成。 材料：健康成年雄性大鼠180只,90只SD大鼠作为供体,90只Wistar大鼠作为受体,施行异位节段性小肠移植。 方法：小肠移植后,大鼠随机分为3组,30只/组：对照组,只做异位小肠移植,不给予任何药物治疗,Met-RANTES治疗组：移植后0~7 d,腹腔注射Met-RANTES 200 μg/d;Met-RANTES联合小剂量他克莫司治疗组：移植后0~7 d,腹腔注射Met-RANTES 200 μg/d + 肌肉注射他克莫司0.5 mg/（kg?d）。 主要观察指标：观察移植大鼠的一般状况和存活时间,并于移植后第1,3,5,7天每组各处死6只大鼠,切取移植肠标本进行组织病理学检查和组间比较。 结果：移植后的90只受体大鼠全部进入结果分析。对照组大鼠存活时间中位数为7.2 d (1.5),全部死于急性排斥反应及感染。组织病理学检查显示移植后第3,5,7天分别符合轻、中、重度排斥反应。Met-RANTES治疗组大鼠存活时间中位数为19.2 d (16.4),与对照组相比存活时间明显延长（P < 0.01）。Met-RANTES+小剂量他克莫司治疗组大鼠存活时间中位数为30.9 d (9.0),与前两组有显著差异（P < 0.01）。Met-RANTES治疗组和Met-RANTES+小剂量他克莫司治疗组大鼠组织病理学检查无明显排斥反应征象,可长期存活。 结论：Met-RANTES能明显抑制小肠移植急性排斥反应,有效保护移植肠功能,显著延长移植物的存活时间,并可增强小剂量他克莫司的免疫抑制作用。     

自制旋转持续静脉输液装置在大鼠同种异体小肠移植排斥模型构建中的应用*☆

背景：构建大鼠小肠移植模型是研究小肠移植排斥反应的重要基础,实验中对动物无法进行长期持续的静脉输液成为延误实验顺利开展的最大障碍。 目的：将自制旋转持续静脉输液装置与大鼠异位小肠移植模型相结合,验证输液装置的可靠性和动物模型的稳定性。 设计、时间及地点：随机区组,对照观察实验,于2008-03/06在解放军第四军医大学西京医院消化病研究所全军医学重点实验室完成。 材料：选用健康雄性近交系F344/NCrl BR大鼠48只为供体,LEW/Crl 大鼠48只为受体,建立同种异体节段性异位小肠移植模型。 方法：将移植后的大鼠以随机化完全区组设计分为3组(n=16)：对照组、输液组和他克莫司治疗组。对照组大鼠仅行小肠移植,移植前后不做持续静脉输液。输液组大鼠给予持续输注肠外营养液。他克莫司治疗组持续输注肠外营养液+静脉注射他克莫司0.5 mg/(kg•d)。 主要观察指标：移植后观察移植大鼠的一般状况和存活时间,并于移植后3,5,7 d 分别取各组大鼠移植肠标本(n=3)进行组织病理学检查,每组剩余的大鼠作存活时间观察,观察期限为5周。 结果：对照组大鼠平均存活时间为(5.4±1.7) d,手术成功率56.3%。采用旋转输液装置的输液组和他克莫司治疗组大鼠手术成功率为90.6%,与对照组比较,差异有显著性意义(P < 0.01)。输液组大鼠平均存活(7.2±2.8) d,最终全部死于急性排斥反应。他克莫司治疗组剩余大鼠的输液时间> 30 d,存活时间超过5周,与对照组和输液组比较,差异有统计学意义(P < 0.05)。对照组和输液组大鼠术后3,5,7 d移植肠组织病理学检查分别符合轻、中、重度排斥反应。他克莫司治疗组大鼠术后3,5,7 d未见明显排斥反应征象。 结论：旋转持续静脉输液装置制作简单,固定安全可靠,能成功地为研究大鼠连续输液30 d以上,与异位小肠移植模型联合应用,能建立稳定可靠的排斥反应模型。     

Genistein联合小剂量他克莫司在胰腺移植排斥反应中的作用

背景：有实验表明CXCR3拮抗剂Genistein可减轻胰腺移植大鼠的急性排斥反应。 目的：观察Genistein联合小剂量他克莫司在胰腺移植抗排斥反应中的作用。 方法：以Wistar大鼠为供体,SD大鼠为受体,建立胰腺移植模型,随机分成5组：对照组(未进行药物治疗)、大剂量他克莫司组、小剂量他克莫司组、Genistein组、Genistein+小剂量他克莫司组。术后第7天行病理学,肝肾功能,血清中CD3+、CD4+、CD8+T淋巴细胞、干扰素γ、白细胞介素2浓度检测。 结果与结论：与对照组、小剂量他克莫司组、Genistein组比较,Genistein+小剂量他克莫司组移植胰腺组织损伤减轻,淋巴细胞浸润减少,急性排斥反应减轻,血清CD3+、CD4+、CD8+ T淋巴细胞明显减少,干扰素γ、白细胞介素2水平降低 (P < 0.05);并且避免了大剂量他克莫司对肝肾功能的损害。说明Genistein联合小剂量他克莫司能有效减轻胰腺移植急性排斥反应而不增加肝肾毒性。     

大鼠肝移植急性排斥反应模型的建立

背景：研究表明Wistar和SD大鼠普遍为封闭杂交系而非近交系,有一定的遗传稳定性,同时也有一定的基因多态性,因此Wistar和SD大鼠之间的肝移植模型可能不是研究大鼠急性排斥反应的理想模型。 目的：建立Lewis-BN大鼠肝脏移植急性排斥反应模型。 方法：采用改良的“Kamada”二袖套法,分别进行同基因Lewis-Lewis间肝移植及Lewis-BN间肝移植。移植后3,5,7 d观察受体肝脏组织病理变化,测定谷丙转氨酶和总胆红素水平变化及大鼠存活时间。 结果与结论：同基因移植组大鼠无急性排斥表现,平均存活时间超过100 d,肝功能损害较轻。异基因移植组大鼠存活 (12.75±1.25) d,移植后第7 天肝脏病理检查有明显的排斥反应,肝功能损害较重,移植后各时相点谷丙转氨酶和总胆红素水平均明显高于同基因移植组(P < 0.05)。提示Lewis-BN大鼠肝移植组合为稳定的大鼠肝移植急性排斥模型,但近交系大鼠对手术耐受性差,建模难度大,熟练的显微外科技术和细心轻柔的操作是模型成功的关键。     

建立夹心ELISA检测RANTES方法及在小肠移植中的应用

背景：RANTES 及其受体介导的细胞免疫是同种异体小肠移植急性排斥反应发生的重要组成部分,小肠移植后血清中RANTES 水平有可能作为早期检测急性排斥反应发生的较敏感的免疫指标。 目的：建立夹心ELISA检测RANTES的方法,并将其应用于大鼠小肠移植模型,探讨其作为检测早期急性排斥反应指标的可能性。 方法：以辣根过氧化物酶标记RANTES mAbs,通过竞争ELISA检测抗RANTES mAb 识别的表位,建立双夹心ELISA试剂盒并检测其敏感性,然后将其应用于大鼠小肠移植模型中RANTES的检测。 结果与结论：以anti-RNATES mAb No.2 (5 mg/L) 为包被抗体,HRP-anti-RNATES mAb No.4(1∶800)为酶标抗体建立了双抗体夹心ELISA法,其敏感性达到0.5 μg/L。异基因大鼠小肠移植模型术后血清RANTES明显增高。提示成功建立了特异性强、灵敏度良好的检测RANTES的双抗体夹心ELISA法,为早期诊断小肠移植排斥反应提供了一种新的方法。     

复合组织及血清肿瘤坏死因子α、白细胞介素10表达与大鼠喉移植急性排斥反应的相关性

背景：喉移植后致炎细胞因子(肿瘤坏死因子α、γ-干扰素等)和抗炎细胞因子(白细胞介素10、白细胞介素4等)之间的相互作用会发生哪些变化呢？ 目的：观察肿瘤坏死因子α、白细胞介素10在大鼠喉移植急性排斥反应期移植喉组织的不同部位和血清中的表达变化,评价其血清水平在预测急性排斥反应中的作用。 方法：进行Wistar→SD大鼠喉移植,移植后依照注射环孢霉素A剂量不同随机分为3组：0 mg组、5 mg组及10 mg组,以未进行喉移植的SD大鼠为正常对照组。 结果与结论：各组移植后第3,7,11天肿瘤坏死因子α、白细胞介素10血清浓度的变化与移植后各相应时间点黏膜上皮及黏膜下层组织中其表达水平的变化均呈正相关。提示,供体喉的高抗原性主要集中于喉的黏膜上皮层及黏膜下层组织;血清肿瘤坏死因子α和白细胞介素10的浓度可以作为预测喉移植术后急性排斥反应的指标。     

他克莫司处理供者树突状细胞在诱导大鼠同种心脏移植免疫耐受中的作用

背景：诱导供者特异性免疫耐受被认为是最终克服器官移植后排斥反应的有效途径，近年来关于未成熟树突状细胞在诱导免疫耐受中的重要作用日益受到关注。 目的：观察他克莫司处理的供者未成熟树突状细胞对大鼠同种异体心脏移植免疫耐受的影响，分析未成熟树突状细胞诱导免疫耐受的作用途径。 设计：随机对照动物实验。 材料：实验于2006-04/2006-12在青岛大学医学院附属医院动物实验中心完成。以45只Wistar大鼠为供体，45只SD大鼠为受体，行颈部心脏移植45例次。按随机数字表法分为3组，每组15例次，进行不同的预处理。 方法：对照组、未经他克莫司处理组及他克莫司处理组移植前7 d分别经尾静脉注射生理盐水、供者未成熟树突状细胞和他克莫司处理的未成熟树突状细胞。分别测定移植后SD大鼠与Wistar大鼠及第3品系Lewis大鼠的单向混合淋巴细胞反应。 主要观察指标：各组受体大鼠移植心脏存活时间、心肌病理及血清白细胞介素2、白细胞介素4、白细胞介素10、γ-干扰素含量变化。 结果：①未经他克莫司处理组大鼠的移植心脏存活时间较对照组明显延长（P < 0.01），他克莫司处理组大鼠的移植心脏存活时间进一步延长（P < 0.05）。②混合淋巴细胞培养结果显示为供者特异性。③各组大鼠血清白细胞介素2、γ-干扰素、白细胞介素4、白细胞介素10含量差异具有显著性意义（P < 0.01）。代表Th1的白细胞介素2、γ-干扰素水平明显降低，代表Th2的白细胞介素4、白细胞介素10水平明显增高。 结论：未成熟树突状细胞能够诱导同种异体大鼠心脏移植免疫耐受；他克莫司处理的未成熟树突状细胞能够加强这种免疫耐受，且这种耐受是供者特异性的。其可能主要通过调节T细胞免疫应答类型（Th1至Th2的免疫偏移）、诱导调节性T细胞和诱导T细胞失能等途径来参与免疫耐受的形成。     

大鼠近交系间原位肝移植急性排斥模型的建立与评价

背景：目前国内常用的封闭群品系大鼠(SD与Wistar大鼠)所建立肝移植急性排斥模型并不理想,易产生肝移植耐受。 目的：通过二袖套法建立稳定的DA-Lewis大鼠原位肝移植急性排斥模型。 方法：实验分为两组：同基因组：Lewis-Lewis 24例;异基因组：DA-Lewis 24例。观察移植后一般情况及移植后存活时间,两组受体分别于移植后3,5,7,10 d随机取3只处死取标本,观察肝脏组织病理变化,测定天冬氨酸转氨酶、总胆红素、细胞因子水平变化。 结果与结论：同基因组大鼠无急性排斥反应表现,中位生存时间超过100 d,肝脏组织发生轻度形态学改变。异基因组大鼠移植后黄疸明显,中位生存时间为11 d,移植后第7天肝脏组织病理表现典型急性排斥反应(Banff国际标准)。同期相比异基因组天冬氨酸转氨酶、总胆红素、细胞因子水平均高于同基因组(P < 0.001)。提示,DA-Lewis是稳定的大鼠肝移植急性排斥模型,是研究肝移植排斥反应及免疫耐受的理想动物模型。     

DA至Lewis大鼠肝移植急性排斥反应模型的建立：技术改良分析*☆

背景：国际上研究肝移植免疫耐受的基础动物模型是大鼠肝移植急性排斥反应模型,国际上公认的肝移植急性排斥反应模型鼠种配对方式为DA至Lewis大鼠、DA至BN大鼠及BN至Lewis大鼠,但由于鼠种缺乏和操作技术有待成熟的原因,国内较少引用以上鼠种配对方式进行该模型的建立。 目的：课题组在大量SD大鼠肝移植模型建立训练的基础上,采用DA大鼠为供体,Lewis大鼠为受体,摸索DA至Lewis大鼠肝移植急排模型建立技巧和经验。 方法：通过改良二袖套法,以雄性DA大鼠为供体,雄性Lewis大鼠为受体,建立原位肝移植动物模型60只,受体大鼠术前1 d和术后1周内饲喂治疗剂量的他克莫司,1周后半量递减并停药,记录移植手术时间,观察受体大鼠的术后生存状况、手术成功率及生存期,分别于术后7,14,21,28 d处死受体大鼠,获取肝组织标本,苏木精-伊红染色,观察肝脏大体和镜下的病理学变化,进行急性排斥反应评分。 结果与结论：供肝冷缺血时间30~60 min,供体手术时间(18.5±4.0) min,供肝修整时间(7±3) min,受体手术时间(35.0± 7.3) min,无肝期为(13.0±3.0) min,手术成功率为98%,1周存活率为91.6%。术后2周随着他克莫司撤药,受体大鼠迅速发生急性排斥反应,于术后14~28 d死亡,平均生存时间为(20.85±0.71) d,中位生存时间为21 d。实验建立DA至Lewis大鼠肝移植急性排斥反应动物模型需要以大量SD大鼠肝移植训练为基础进行,通过对二袖套法技术的改良和围手术期短期应用他克莫司有助于该模型的稳定建立。     

他克莫司促进神经干细胞移植大鼠脊髓损伤的再生与修复

背景：研究证实,他克莫司不仅抑制T细胞的增殖、活化,还能抑制小胶质细胞、巨噬细胞等炎症细胞在损伤局部聚集、活化及相关炎症因子的释放,减轻继发性炎症反应对原发损伤周围正常组织的破坏,从而对损伤局部的神经组织起保护作用。 目的：观察他克莫司对神经干细胞移植大鼠脊髓损伤后再生修复的影响。 方法：分离培养孕13d SD大鼠神经干细胞。显微镜下动脉瘤夹夹闭SD大鼠T8脊髓,建立压迫型脊髓损伤动物模型。损伤后7 d随机数字表分为3组：对照组,于损伤中心定向注射生理盐水;细胞移植组,于损伤中心定向注射神经干细胞;他克莫司组,于损伤中心定向注射神经干细胞同时给予免疫抑制剂他克莫司1 mg/(kg•d)腹腔注射连续7 d。1,2,4,8周后,通过BDA顺行示踪、苏木精-伊红与免疫组化染色及电镜检测,观察移植后脊髓组织再生和神经元的变化。 结果与结论：对照组在损伤中心端远侧无神经纤维通过。细胞移植组与他克莫司组在治疗1周后有部分神经纤维通过,8周均有部分BDA阳性标记的皮质脊髓束再生通过脊髓损伤部位,特别是他克莫司组可延续至距损伤中心1.7 cm 。苏木精-伊红染色显示,细胞移植组与他克莫司组2周时坏死灶开始缩小,泡沫细胞减少。电镜结果显示,他克莫司组1周时即出现较正常的微丝和微管结构,8周时星形细胞、许旺细胞、髓鞘典型多见,神经轴突的终末有较多的兴奋性递质和不典型的轴树连接,出现较多的结构正常的髓鞘。说明损伤大鼠移植神经干细胞后联合应用他克莫司后可减轻早期的急性炎症反应,保证神经细胞的存活,具有神经保护和神经营养作用,可加快神经功能的恢复。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Special Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Children

Summary: Pediatric patients have greater degrees of pharmacokinetic variability and unpredictability than adults. This variability results from the effects of pharmacogenetics, age and growth, prior and current comedication, and disease. Newborns with seizures have the least predictable dosage requirements, and their needs change as drug-eliminating mechanisms mature in the neonatal period. Infants have the highest relative capacities to eliminate antiepileptics of any age group and require the largest relative doses. In addition to age-related trends, children demonstrate the same drug-specific, pharmacokinetic phenomena that adults do, including nonlinear phenytoin elimination, nonlinear valproate binding, and autoinduction of carbamazepine. Intercurrent illness and drug interactions further modify the age-related pharmacokinetic patterns in children and make dosage requirements even more unpredictable. Recent studies have shown that febrile illness can affect drug elimination, sometimes decreasing drug levels by 50% or more. Intermittent treatment with benzodiazepines administered either orally or rectally can be an important adjunct and help minimize this type of problem for children with marginally controlled epilepsy. Intermittent benzodiazepines are also helpful for children who have febrile seizures and who need only occasional antiepileptic protection.