Dietary glycaemic index and glycaemic load among Australian children and adolescents

There are no published data regarding the overall dietary glycaemic index (GI) and glycaemic load (GL) of Australian children and adolescents. We therefore aim to describe the dietary GI and GL of participants of the 2007 Australian National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (2007ANCNPAS), and to identify the main foods contributing to their GL. Children, aged 2-16 years, who provided two 24 h recalls in the 2007ANCNPAS were included. A final dataset of 4184 participants was analysed. GI of each food item was assigned using a previously published method. GL was calculated, and food groups contributing to the GL were described by age group and sex. The weighted mean dietary GI and GL of the participants were 54 (SD 5) and 136 (SD 44), respectively. Among the nutrients examined, Ca had the highest inverse relationship with GI (P < 0·001), while percentage energy from starch was most positively associated with GI. The association between fibre density and GI was modest, and percentage energy from sugar had an inverse relationship with GI. Daily dietary GL contributed by energy-dense and/or nutrient-poor (EDNP) items in subjects aged 14-16 years was more than doubled that of subjects aged 2-3 years. To conclude, Australian children and adolescents were having a high-GI dietary pattern characterised by high-starchy food intake and low Ca intake. A significant proportion of their dietary GL was from EDNP foods. Efforts to reduce dietary GI and GL in children and adolescents should focus on energy-dense starchy foods.     

Dietary glycaemic index and glycaemic load in relation to the risk of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies

Epidemiological studies of dietary glycaemic index (GI) and glycaemic load (GL) in relation to diabetes risk have yielded inconsistent results. We aimed to examine the associations between dietary GI and GL and the risk of type 2 diabetes by conducting a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Relevant studies were identified by a PubMed database search up to February 2011. Reference lists from retrieved articles were also reviewed. We included prospective cohort studies that reported risk estimates with 95 % CI for the associations between dietary GI and GL and the risk of type 2 diabetes. Either a fixed- or random-effects model was used to compute the summary relative risk (RR). We identified thirteen prospective cohort studies of dietary GI or GL related to diabetes risk. The summary RR of type 2 diabetes for the highest category of the GI compared with the lowest was 1·16 (95 % CI 1·06, 1·26; n 12), with moderate evidence of heterogeneity (P = 0·02, I(2) = 50·8 %). For the GL, the summary RR was 1·20 (95 % CI 1·11, 1·30; n 12), with little evidence of heterogeneity (P = 0·10, I(2) = 34·8 %). No evidence of publication bias was observed. In addition, the associations persisted and remained statistically significant in the sensitivity analyses. In conclusion, the present meta-analysis provides further evidence in support of significantly positive associations between dietary GI and GL and the risk of type 2 diabetes. Reducing the intake of high-GI foods may bring benefits in diabetes prevention.     

Glycemic index and glycemic load in relation to body mass index and waist to hip ratio

Purpose  

High-glycemic index (GI) diet has been associated with obesity, but epidemiological data are inconsistent. We therefore investigated the relation between GI and glycemic load (GL) with body mass index (BMI) and waist to hip ratio (WHR), as a measure of body fat distribution.     

Dietary calcium and body mass index in Portuguese children

OBJECTIVE: The objective of our study was to assess nutritional intake in school children (7-9-y-old) and relate calcium intake to body mass index (BMI). DESIGN: This study was a cross-sectional analysis. SETTING: The data were derived from a community-based survey of children from primary schools of Portugal. SUBJECTS: In all, 3044 Portuguese children (1503 girls and 1541 boys) from a community-based sample of 7-9-y-olds. METHODS: Height and weight were measured according to international standards, and BMI was calculated. Children's parents completed a self-administered questionnaire that provided information on general family background characteristics and children's physical activity. Children's dietary intake was measured using a 24-h dietary recall. Calcium intake was expressed as the calcium-to-protein ratio, and regression analysis was used to estimate the association between calcium intake and BMI, adjusting for energy intake and confounders. RESULTS: The prevalence of children with calcium intake below the Dietary Reference Intake was higher in girls (36.4 vs 33.0%, P = 0.053). Calcium-to-protein ratio predicts BMI only in girls (beta = -0.052, P = 0.002), even after adjusting for age, energy intake, parental education, and physical activity. CONCLUSION: We found an inverse relationship between calcium intake and BMI only in girls. These data reinforce the need for controlled trials to assess the effects of dietary calcium on body mass in each gender.     

Body mass index and body fatness in childhood

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The prevalence of overweight, as assessed by a high body mass index (kg/m), has greatly increased among children and adolescents over the last three decades. Because body mass index is a measure of excess weight rather than excess body fatness, it is important to understand the ability of a high level to identify children who truly have excess adiposity. This review covers the measurement and classification of overweight and obesity, the expression of body composition data, and the relation of body mass index to adiposity. RECENT FINDINGS: Although adiposity has typically been expressed as percentage body fat, the use of the fat mass index (fat mass/height) and the fat-free mass index (fat-free mass/height) may provide more information. For example, body mass index differences among relatively thin children have been found to largely reflect differences in fat-free mass index, whereas differences among relatively heavy children are primarily due to differences in fat mass index. In addition, the ability of overweight to identify obese children is greatly influenced by the cutpoints selected for body mass index and adiposity. The use of inappropriate cutpoints, rather than the limitations of body mass index, may account for the frequently reported finding that many obese children are not overweight. SUMMARY: The use of fat mass index and fat-free mass index in expressing body composition data allows one to easily assess the contribution of each to body mass index. If appropriate cutpoints are used, a high body mass index level is a moderately sensitive and a very specific indicator of excess adiposity among children.     

Dietary glycemic index and load in relation to cardiovascular disease risk factors in Cuban American population

Objective To examine whether dietary glycemic index (GI) or glycemic load (GL) had an effect on the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors and whether the effects were dependent on the diabetes status in the Cuban American population.

Design A case–control, single-time-point study.

Methods A total of 324 middle-aged Cuban American adults had completed data on fasting blood lipids, physical activity level and usual dietary intake using a validated food frequency questionnaire. Published GI values were assigned to food items and average dietary GI and GL were calculated per participant.

Results Subjects without type 2 diabetes (T2D) were 3.3 times more likely to be in the recommended, highest high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol category if they were in the second dietary GL tertile as compared with those in the first dietary GL tertile (P = 0.042, 95% confidence interval = 1.94, 10.78).

Conclusions The results of the present study suggest that in this sample of Cuban Americans a high GI or GL diet do not adversely affects blood lipids, especially among subjects without T2D.     

Glycemic index and glycemic load in relation to changes in body weight, body fat distribution, and body composition in adult Danes

BACKGROUND: A diet with a high glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) may promote overconsumption of energy and increase the risk of weight gain. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to investigate the relation between GI and GL of habitual diets and subsequent 6-y changes in body weight, body fat distribution, and body composition in a random group of adult Danes. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study was conducted in a subsample of men and women from the Danish arm of the Monitoring Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease study. The subsample comprised 185 men and 191 women born in 1922, 1932, 1942, or 1952. A baseline health examination and a dietary history interview were carried out in 1987 and 1988; a follow-up health examination was performed in 1993 and 1994. RESULTS: Positive associations between GI and changes in body weight (DeltaBW), percentage body fat (Delta%BF), and waist circumference (DeltaWC) were observed in women after adjustment for covariates. Significant GI x sex x physical activity interactions for DeltaBW, Delta%BF, and DeltaWC were observed, and the associations in the sedentary women were particularly positive. No significant associations with GI were observed in men, and no significant associations with GL were observed in either sex. CONCLUSIONS: High-GI diets may lead to increases in BW, body fat mass, and WC in women, especially in sedentary women, which suggests that physical activity may protect against diet-induced weight gain. No associations with GI were observed in men, which suggests sex differences in the association between GI and obesity development.     

Dietary carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load in relation to risk of colorectal cancer in women

Diets with a high glycemic index and glycemic load have been hypothesized to be implicated in the etiology of colorectal cancer owing to their potential to increase postprandial glucose and insulin levels. Prospective data on glycemic index and glycemic load in relation to colorectal cancer risk are limited and inconsistent. Therefore, the authors prospectively investigated the associations of dietary carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load with the incidence of colorectal cancer among 61,433 Swedish women who were free of cancer in 1987-1990 and completed a 67-item food frequency questionnaire. During follow-up through June 2005, 870 incident cases of colorectal adenocarcinoma were diagnosed. Carbohydrate intake, glycemic index, and glycemic load were not associated with risk of colorectal cancer, colon cancer, or rectal cancer. The multivariate hazard ratios for colorectal cancer comparing the highest with the lowest quintile were 1.10 (95% confidence interval: 0.85, 1.44) for carbohydrate intake, 1.00 (95% confidence interval: 0.75, 1.33) for glycemic index, and 1.06 (95% confidence interval: 0.81, 1.39) for glycemic load. Results did not vary by body mass index. The findings from this prospective study do not support the hypothesis that a high carbohydrate intake, a high glycemic index, and a high glycemic load increase the risk of colorectal cancer.     

Glycaemic index and glycaemic load intake patterns in older Australian women

Aims:  Dietary glycaemic index and glycaemic load have been associated with risk of chronic diseases, yet limited research exists on patterns of consumption in Australia. Our aims were to investigate glycaemic carbohydrate in a population of older women, identify major contributing food sources and determine low, moderate and high ranges.
Methods:  Subjects were 459 Brisbane women aged 42–81 years participating in the Longitudinal Assessment of Ageing in Women. Diet history interviews were used to assess usual diet and results were analysed into energy and macronutrients using the FoodWorks dietary analysis program combined with a customised glycaemic index database.
Results:  Mean ± SD dietary glycaemic index was 55.6 ± 4.4% and mean dietary glycaemic load was 115 ± 25. A low glycaemic index in this population was ≤52.0, corresponding to the lowest quintile of dietary glycaemic index, and a low glycaemic load was ≤95. Glycaemic index showed a quadratic relationship with age ( P = 0.01), with a slight decrease observed in women aged in their 60s relative to younger or older women. Glycaemic load decreased linearly with age ( P < 0.001). Bread was the main contributor to carbohydrate and dietary glycaemic load (17.1% and 20.8%, respectively), followed by fruit (15.5% and 14.2%), and dairy for carbohydrate (9.0%), or breakfast cereals for glycaemic load (8.9%).
Conclusions:  In this population, dietary glycaemic load decreased with increasing age; however, this was likely to be a result of higher energy intakes in younger women. Focus on careful selection of lower-glycaemic-index items within bread and breakfast cereal food groups would be an effective strategy for decreasing dietary glycaemic load in this population of older women.     

Glycaemic index and glycaemic load of three traditional Mexican dishes

The purpose of the present study was to assess the glycaemic index (GI) and glycaemic load (GL) of different mixed meals traditionally consumed in Mexico. GI was measured for three meals (Pozole, Molletes and Mole), using glucose as a reference in 12 college student subjects. Mole (p?=?0.002), Molletes (p?=?0.043) and Pozole (p?=?0.016) showed a lower IAUC than glucose. However, there was not difference between meals. Higher GI and GL levels were observed than the estimated GI using as reference the International Table of Atkinson et al. (2008. Diabetes Care 31(12):2281-2283). Since food ingredients vary among Mexican regions, it is recommended to assess the GI and GL of mixed meals according to the cooking habits of each region.     

Dietary glycemic index and load in relation to metabolic risk factors in Japanese female farmers with traditional dietary habits

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the relation of dietary glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) to metabolic risk factors, particularly in non-Western populations. OBJECTIVE: We examined the cross-sectional associations between dietary GI and GL and several metabolic risk factors in healthy Japanese women with traditional dietary habits. DESIGN: The subjects were 1354 Japanese female farmers aged 20-78 y from 5 regions of Japan. Dietary GI and GL were assessed with a self-administered diet-history questionnaire. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg) divided by the square of height (m). Fasting blood samples were collected for biochemical measurements. RESULTS: The mean dietary GI was 67, and the mean dietary GL (/1000 kcal) was 88 (GI for glucose = 100). White rice (GI = 77) was the major contributor to dietary GI and GL (58.5%). After adjustment for potential dietary and nondietary confounding factors, dietary GI was positively correlated with BMI (n = 1354; P for trend = 0.017), fasting triacylglycerol (n = 1349; P for trend = 0.001), fasting glucose (n = 764; P for trend = 0.022), and glycated hemoglobin (n = 845; P for trend = 0.038). Dietary GL was independently negatively correlated with HDL cholesterol (n = 1354; P for trend = 0.004) and positively correlated with fasting triacylglycerol (P for trend = 0.047) and fasting glucose (P for trend = 0.012). CONCLUSIONS: Both dietary GI and GL are independently correlated with several metabolic risk factors in subjects whose dietary GI and GL were primarily determined on the basis of the GI of white rice.     

Glycaemic index and glycaemic load of three traditional Mexican dishes

The purpose of the present study was to assess the glycaemic index (GI) and glycaemic load (GL) of different mixed meals traditionally consumed in Mexico. GI was measured for three meals (Pozole, Molletes and Mole), using glucose as a reference in 12 college student subjects. Mole (p = 0.002), Molletes (p = 0.043) and Pozole (p = 0.016) showed a lower IAUC than glucose. However, there was not difference between meals. Higher GI and GL levels were observed than the estimated GI using as reference the International Table of Atkinson et al. (2008. Diabetes Care 31(12):2281–2283). Since food ingredients vary among Mexican regions, it is recommended to assess the GI and GL of mixed meals according to the cooking habits of each region.     

Eating habits in relation to body fatness and gender in adolescents--results from the 'SWEDES' study

OBJECTIVE: To investigate if eating habits among adolescents are related to body fatness and gender. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Obesity Unit, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden, 2001-2002. SUBJECTS: Two hundred and seventy-five girls and 199 boys, aged 16-17 years. METHOD: Questionnaires were used for dietary intake and meal frequency, BodPod for measuring body fatness (BF%). In all, 169 girls and 128 boys were classified as adequate reporters (AR) of energy intake, and were used in the dietary analyses. The whole sample was used in the meal frequency analyses. RESULTS: The correlation between reported energy intake and weight in the AR group was 0.23 (P<0.01) for girls and 0.36 for boys (P<0.001). The correlations were inverse or not significant in the whole sample. The following variables correlated significantly with a high BF% (r (s)=+/-0.2): a low intake of milk in both girls and boys, a high intake of fibre and alcohol and a low intake of sugar in girls and a low intake of breakfast cereals in boys. Those with regular breakfast habits had healthier food choices than others, but this was not related to BF%. Boys had more meals per day (4.9 vs 4.6, P=0.02), especially early in the morning and late at night, whereas girls reported a higher relative intake of light meals and fruit and a lower intake of milk than boys. CONCLUSIONS: A few associations between eating habits and body fatness were found, but without any obvious patterns. The true differences in eating habits between lean and overweight adolescents are probably very small.     

Adding glycaemic index and glycaemic load functionality to DietPLUS, a Malaysian food composition database and diet intake calculator

This paper outlines the methodology to add glycaemic index (GI) and glycaemic load (GL) functionality to food DietPLUS, a Microsoft Excel-based Malaysian food composition database and diet intake calculator. Locally determined GI values and published international GI databases were used as the source of GI values. Previously published methodology for GI value assignment was modified to add GI and GL calculators to the database. Two popular local low GI foods were added to the DietPLUS database, bringing up the total number of foods in the database to 838 foods. Overall, in relation to the 539 major carbohydrate foods in the Malaysian Food Composition Database, 243 (45%) food items had local Malaysian values or were directly matched to International GI database and another 180 (33%) of the foods were linked to closely-related foods in the GI databases used. The mean ± SD dietary GI and GL of the dietary intake of 63 women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus, calculated using DietPLUS version3 were, 62 ± 6 and 142 ± 45, respectively. These values were comparable to those reported from other local studies. DietPLUS version3, a simple Microsoft Excel-based programme aids calculation of diet GI and GL for Malaysian diets based on food records.