Motorische Leistungsfähigkeit

Motor fitness was investigated in children and adolescents aged 4-17 using specific short tests. These tested the motor abilities: co-ordination, strength, cardiorespiratory fitness and flexibility. Among the 4-10 year olds, the focus of the investigation was on recording coordination, strength and flexibility; in the age group of the 11-17 year olds it was on recording cardiorespiratory fitness. The current investigation describes motor fitness based on the tested abilities according to age, sex and sociodemographic aspects. In all the test tasks, as expected, there are better results from older children and adolescents than from younger ones. Among the 4-10 year olds, girls display a slightly higher motor fitness in five out of the six tasks. In cardiorespiratory fitness, the cycle ergometer test for the 11-17 year olds shows better results for boys. The results indicate that there is a correlation between migrant status, social status and motor fitness. The shown differences point out that possible intervention programmes should be specifically attuned to age and sex as well as to the concerns of children and families with a migrant background and those of low social status. These collected data on motor fitness produced a database, representative of Germany. This will enable statements on state and development of motor fitness in children and adolescents in the future.     

Understanding the landscapes of stories: the association between preschoolers’ narrative comprehension and production skills and cognitive abilities

Seventy‐two African‐American and European American low‐income preschoolers attending Head Start and community childcare centres were asked to create an oral story using a wordless picture book, then told an oral story using the same book and asked follow‐up comprehension questions. Children’s performance was better on questions addressing the character’s actions versus his motives/intentions. Five‐year‐olds outperformed three‐year‐olds, and African‐Americans outperformed European Americans on questions about the character’s motives/intentions. After controlling for children’s age and ethnicity, the only narrative skill that predicted cognitive abilities was narrative quality: children who created narratives that included the character’s motives/intentions had higher cognitive skills.     

Efficiency of the home parental programme in visual–motor home activity among first‐grade children

Background The objectives of this study were to assess the efficacy of the home parental programme (HPP) in improving children's visual–motor skills, and to assess parent satisfaction with the programme. Methods Forty‐five children and their parents participated in the study: 23 children and their parents in the study group (children receiving consultation in the classroom and whose parents participated in the HPP) and 22 children and their parents in the control group (children receiving consultation in the classroom only). All children were recruited based on their scores on the Visual Motor Integration test or upon teacher referral. The Developmental Test of Visual Perception‐2 administered before and after intervention served as an outcome measure. HPP lasted approximately 12 weeks and included relevant visual–motor activities carried out at home by the parents with their children. Results The study failed to prove that HPP improved children's visual–motor skills beyond the other service delivery methods used in the present study. Conclusions Parent satisfaction was significantly higher among those who participated in the HPP. Parents showed high compliance with the friendly programme despite their low socio‐economic status.     

How ‘flat’ are normal ability profiles in 4-year-olds?

Summary Group and individual ability profiles of 89 English 4-year-olds on the McCarthy scales of children's abilities (MSCA) are presented. The results suggest that at this age, there is a high expectation of obtaining at least one significant difference between a child's mean ability score and the individual ability of index scores. The direction of these significant differences in ability suggested that, in this age group, abilities measured by the MSCA verbal and perceptual performance indexes tend to be more advanced than abilities measured by the quantitative and memory indexes. Motor development is relatively retarded compared to these other abilities. (The results are at variance with the often accepted concept of a 'flat' ability profile in normal children.)
The use of the MSCA on English children could result in over referral of normal children, especially boys, who appear delayed on the motor index, and under referral of children who were regarded as normal on the verbal and perceptual indexes.     

Participation in Physical Activity,Fitness, and Risk for Obesity in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Cross‐cultural Study

Decreased physical activity has been linked to poor fitness and obesity, resulting in increased risk for health concerns. The objective is to study the relationships between children's motor coordination and their physical activity, sedentary behaviour, fitness and weight status in a cross‐cultural study in the United States and Israel. Participants included 118 children 6–11 years of age: 53 children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and 65 typical children. The US sample included 31 DCD children and 44 typical children. The Israeli sample included 22 DCD children and 21 typical children. Participants were assessed on Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2, strength test of the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 and Six‐minute Walk Test and wore an accelerometer. Parents completed physical activity questionnaires and demographic information. Body mass index was calculated based on height and weight. Testing took place in two sessions. Findings are that in both Israel and the United States, children with DCD demonstrated significantly reduced physical activity, increased sedentary behaviour, poorer fitness and increased overweight compared with typical children. No significant differences were found for country. With relevance to clinical practice, fitness and obesity are major concerns for children with DCD in both countries. Inclusion of occupational therapy in health promotion for this population is critical. Additional studies with testers blind to group, larger samples and other countries are recommended. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Motor development in school‐age children is associated with the home environment including socioeconomic status

The aim of the present study was to examine how the home environment, including socioeconomic status (SES), affects motor development in school‐age children. Seven hundred seven children (332 boys and 375 girls) aged between 6 and 10 years participated in the study. Motor Development was determined using the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency‐Second Edition. Parents answered the Middle Childhood Home Observation Measurement of the Environment (HOME) Inventory, and Brazilian Association of Market Research Institutes Questionnaire (for SES). Children from “Adequate” homes (HOME score), compared with “Less Adequate,” displayed better motor behavior. Mediation and moderation analysis revealed that motor development increased as SES increased. The proportion of variance in motor development explained by SES increased from 9% to 13% when the home was added as a mediation variable. We also found that the effect of SES on motor development was moderated by age. For older children, the effect was lower than for younger children. The best model used SES as the predictor, HOME as the mediator, and AGE as the moderator variable and explained 17% of the variance in motor development. In summary, these findings suggest that, like previous reports with young children, the HOME environment and SES may play an important role in motor development of school‐age children. Our findings encourage the assessment of the home and interventions that take into account the home environment to improve motor development in school‐age children.     

Effect of settlement on nutritional status of Bedouin children aged 6–10 years in the Lebanese Beqaa valley†

The paper examines the nutritional status of Bedouin children as affected by settlement and by production systems. Anthropometric data (height and weight) were collected on 215 children aged 6–10 years from the Bedouin population of the Bega's valley. The sample included settled and semi‐settled Bedouins having two production activities: livestock ownership, or agricultural work. Semi‐settled Bedouins when compared to settled ones tended to have improved weight and height in all age groups. The difference in height was statistically significant for those aged 10 years (P < 0.05). Production type also seemed to affect growth of Bedouin children whereby those from families involved in agriculture production tended to have better growth with a significant difference in height amongst those aged 7 and 10 years (P < 0.05). The Bedouin Children surveyed whether compared by their own position within centile distribution of reference population (NCHS) or as a standard deviation (Z‐Score) manifested mild to moderate stunting ht/age. Forty‐nine percent and 37% of settled and semi‐settled livestock groups respectively were below ‐ 1SD for ht/age, whereas, 38.5% and 31.6% of settled and semi‐settled agriculture groups fell in this lower range. All Bedouin children in the studied age groups were shorter than the American NCHS standard for height.

It could be concluded that settlement of nomads did not seem to demonstrate a positive effect on the physical growth of Bedouin children.     

Do prior knowledge,personality and visual perceptual ability predict student performance in microscopic pathology?

Medical Education 2010: 44: 621–629 Objectives There has been long‐standing controversy regarding aptitude testing and selection for medical education. Visual perception is considered particularly important for detecting signs of disease as part of diagnostic procedures in, for example, microscopic pathology, radiology and dermatology and as a component of perceptual motor skills in medical procedures such as surgery. In 1968 the Perceptual Ability Test (PAT) was introduced in dental education. The aim of the present pilot study was to explore possible predictors of performance in diagnostic classification based on microscopic observation in the context of an undergraduate pathology course. Methods A pre‐ and post‐test of diagnostic classification performance, test of visual perceptual skill (Test of Visual Perceptual Skills, 3rd edition [TVPS‐3]) and a self‐report instrument of personality (Big Five Personality Inventory) were administered. In addition, data on academic performance (performance in histology and cell biology, a compulsory course taken the previous year, in addition to performance on the microscopy examination and final examination) were collected. Results The results indicated that one personality factor (Conscientiousness) and one element of visual perceptual ability (spatial relationship awareness) predicted performance on the pre‐test. The only factor to predict performance on the post‐test was performance on the pre‐test. Similarly, the microscopy examination score was predicted by the pre‐test score, in addition to the histology and cell biology grade. The course examination score was predicted by two personality factors (Conscientiousness and lack of Openness) and the histology and cell biology grade. Conclusions Visual spatial ability may be related to performance in the initial phase of training in microscopic pathology. However, from a practical point of view, medical students are able to learn basic microscopic pathology using worked‐out examples, independently of measures of personality or visual perceptual ability. This finding should reassure students about their abilities to improve with training independently of their scores on tests on basic abilities and personality.     

Normative data collection of the Marburg Concentration Test for Pre‐school Children (German: MKVK)

Objective The objective of this study was the standardization of the Marburg Concentration Test for Pre‐school Children (German: MKVK) for 3‐ to 6‐year‐old children as an instrument for the early diagnosis of lack of concentration in connection with language development disorders. Patients and methods We conducted the MKVK on 309 children in 15 day‐care centres. The MKVK is a matter of a simple sorting task of 80 cards according to pictures. The ascertainment of the concentration performance is conducted using the criteria processing time and error count. The results are analysed in seven age groups. Results An age dependence is seen in the execution time and a tendency in the amount of errors. Three‐year‐olds require more time and make more errors than 4.5‐ and 5‐year‐olds. Two groups become apparent in the 3‐year‐olds: children with whom the test is easy to take and children who are still overwhelmed with the instructions and processing. Conclusion The MKVK is easy to conduct and shows children's ability to concentrate at pre‐school ages. It proves to be of particular value for the 4‐ and 5‐year‐olds. The study gives hints on different work methods of the children. Indications for a differentiated facilitation could be deduced from that.     

Neurobehavioral development in children with potential exposure to pesticides

BACKGROUND: Children may be at higher risk than adults from pesticide exposure, due to their rapidly developing physiology, unique behavioral patterns, and interactions with the physical environment. This preliminary study conducted in Ecuador examines the association between household and environmental risk factors for pesticide exposure and neurobehavioral development. METHODS: We collected data over 6 months in the rural highland region of Cayambe, Ecuador (2003-2004). Children age 24-61 months residing in 3 communities were assessed with the Ages and Stages Questionnaire and the Visual Motor Integration Test. We gathered information on maternal health and work characteristics, the home and community environment, and child characteristics. Growth measurements and a hemoglobin finger-prick blood test were obtained. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Current maternal employment in the flower industry was associated with better developmental scores. Longer hours playing outdoors were associated with lower gross and fine motor and problem solving skills. Children who played with irrigation water scored lower on fine motor skills (8% decrease; 95% confidence interval = -9.31 to -0.53), problem-solving skills (7% decrease; -8.40 to -0.39), and Visual Motor Integration test scores (3% decrease; -12.00 to 1.08). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that certain environmental risk factors for exposure to pesticides may affect child development, with contact with irrigation water of particular concern. However, the relationships between these risk factors and social characteristics are complex, as corporate agriculture may increase risk through pesticide exposure and environmental contamination, while indirectly promoting healthy development by providing health care, relatively higher salaries, and daycare options.     

Improving listening comprehension through a whole‐schema approach

To examine effects of age on play in which children coordinate their attention to objects and peers, 36 low‐socioeconomic (SES) black children, ages 3 and 5 years, were observed in a laboratory playroom. The children were observed playing under two conditions: (a) with a familiar playmate of the same age and gender; and (b) without a playmate. During the with‐peer condition, four playstates were defined according to whether the child was interacting with peers or with objects.

Results of transitional analyses of these four playstates support Bakeman and Brownlee's (1980) one‐step model wherein probable transitions involve a change in only one domain, social or cognitive. However, results from this study do not support Bakeman and Brownlee's findings that probable one‐step transitions most often occur in the cognitive domain. In this study, all of the probable transitions took place in the social domain.

Although the children exhibited some one‐step social transitions, they did not use peer interaction as a stepping stone to activities that combined peer interaction with object‐mediated play. The 5‐year‐olds did not engage in significantly more play than did the 3‐year‐olds that combined peer interaction with object use during the with‐peer condition. There were also no effects of age on the proportions of object play accounted for by different cognitive levels of play (e.g., sensorimotor, pretense). However, the 5‐year‐olds did exhibit a greater total amount of object play than did the 3‐year‐olds; and less object play was observed in the with‐peer condition than in the without‐peer condition.     

A developmental perspective of divergent movement ability in early young children

Movement responses to a stimulus could be either quantitative or qualitative, or could also be the answer to a pre-established problem. This process activates both divergent thinking and critical thinking. Divergent movement ability generates both quantitative and qualitative movement responses to a stimulus. The aim of this study was to examine the divergent movement ability of preschool and elementary school children. The effect of age and gender in two factors of motor creativity—motor fluency and motor flexibility—was estimated. The sample consisted of 191 early young children (101 boys and 90 girls). The subject's divergent movement ability was assessed using the Divergent Movement Ability Test, which included three locomotor/movement tasks. Motor fluency and motor flexibility evaluation was based on the specific scoresheets. Analysis of variance showed statistically significant differences among the three age groups on both factors of divergent movement ability. The older children produced more quantitative and qualitative movement responses than younger children. The results also showed no statistically significant differences between the two genders. Early young girls and boys seemed to have similar ability in producing divergent movements.     

Cognitive abilities of African American children with prenatal cocaine/polydrug exposure

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of prenatal cocaine/polydrug exposure on cognitive abilities of school-aged children. The study examined differences in the performance of low income prenatal cocaine/polydrug-exposed and non-exposed African American children (n=49) between 6 and 8 years of age, on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition. Twenty-five children had a history of prenatal cocaine/polydrug exposure and 24 had no known history. The groups were matched for age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Test scores determined if drug exposure predicted global intelligence score and if there were significant differences between the two groups in specific areas of cognitive ability assessed. Drug exposure predicted IQ scores, as drug-exposed children performed significantly lower than their non-exposed counterparts on global intelligence and verbal comprehension, but comparably on the freedom from distractibility tasks. On individual cognitive tasks, the performances of cocaine/polydrug-exposed and non-exposed children were comparable on 8 of the 11 tasks assessed. The findings call into question earlier predictions about cocaine-exposed children.     

Convergent validity of two motor skill tests used to assess school-age children

Background: Motor skills allow children to interact with their surrounding environment, making the progression of competent motor skills crucial to development. The most common form of motor skill assessment is through the use of performance-based tests. Performance measures need to be both reliable and valid to ensure they are of high quality. Two examples of performance-based motor skill tests often used to assess children are the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency – 2nd edition (BOT-2) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children – 2nd edition (MABC-2). Aim: This study investigated the convergent validity between the BOT-2 and MABC-2 when completed by typically developing school-aged children aged 7–16 years. Method: A convenience sample of 50 children aged 7–16 years with no history of motor or intellectual impairments was recruited. Scores from the BOT-2 and MABC-2 were analysed using Spearman’s rho correlation. Results:The study found that the MABC-2 11- to 16-year-old group (age band 3) was significantly associated with the BOT-2; however, there were no significant relationships between the MABC-2 7- to 10-year-old group (age band 2) and the BOT-2. Conclusion: The MABC-2 and BOT-2 appear to assess associated motor skill abilities in children aged 11–16 years but not in children aged 7–10. This study adds to the body of convergent validity evidence regarding the MABC-2 and BOT-2.     

Deficits in motor co-ordination and attention at 3 years of age predict motor deviations in 6.5-year-old children who needed neonatal intensive care

Background   A total of 189 children without major impairments who needed neonatal intensive care (NIC) were followed up at ages 3 and 6.5 years.
Aim   To determine the prevalence of different motor deviations at age 6.5 years and the co-occurrence of attention deficits; also, to analyse the predictive ability of motor co-ordination and attention assessments at age 3 years for motor deviations at 6.5 years.
Method   A combined assessment of motor performance and behaviour (CAMPB) was used at the 3-year examination. The Test of Motor Impairment (TOMI) and the Motor-Perceptual Development (MPU) were used together with the criteria of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV-TR) to define motor deviations.
Results   At 6.5 years 64% of the children showed a motor deviation either as a delay according to MPU, a problem according to TOMI or Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) according to DSM-IV-TR. Higher proportions of children with attention deficit (50%) were found in the DCD group. The predictive ability of CAMPB was analysed in two ways: when all children with either a co-ordination or attention deficit, or both, at 3 years were considered to be at risk for motor deviations at 6.5 years, the sensitivity reached 78% and the specificity was 42%. But when only the 3 year olds with a combined deficit were considered to be at risk, the sensitivity was 37% and the specificity 89%; however, a positive predictive value of 86% was reached.
Conclusion   At 6.5 years of age a majority of NIC children with no major impairments showed motor deviations. To fulfil the DCD criteria in DSM-IV-TR, a strict definition of motor deviations is recommended. Attention deficits are more prevalent among children with DCD. Deficits in motor co-ordination and/or attention in 3-year-old children are strong predictors of motor deviations and, especially, of DCD at 6.5 years of age.     

Guest Editorial

Most of the preschool curricula involve integrated movement activities that combine music, rhythm and locomotor skills. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether there are any differences between boys and girls at the age of five concerning their musical aptitude, rhythmic ability and performance in gross motor skills. Ninety‐five preschool children participated in the study (50 girls and 45 boys). The measures used were the Primary Measures of Music Audiation, the High/Scope Rhythmic Competence Analysis Test and the Gross Motor Development test 2. The results revealed no significant gender differences in musical aptitude and gross motor skills performance, whereas girls outperformed boys in four of the six movements of rhythmic ability test. Considering that rhythmic competence is strongly inter‐related with children’s motor coordination, the concluding suggestion for the preschool physical education curriculum is to incorporate specific rhythmic activities (like Orff, Dalcroze and dance) in order to overcome the boys’ performance deficiency.     

The relationship between perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills in preschool children

Background The purpose of this investigation had two folds. First, it aimed to discover the relationship between perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills in preschoolers. Secondly, it examined the effect of sex on perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills within the sample. Methods A total of 119 children (mean age 4.00, SD 0.55 years) participated in this study. The Test of Gross Motor Development – 2nd Edition was used to assess fundamental motor skills and the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance was used to assess perceived physical competence. Results The results show a moderate and significant correlation between perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills. Sex differences were also found with boys demonstrating more proficient motor skills and reporting higher perceived physical competence compared with girls. Conclusions The findings provide relevant information to the child development literature and suggest that a positive relationship exist between preschoolers' self‐perceptions of the physical ability and fundamental motor skills.     

The effect of residence area and mother's education on motor development of preschool-aged children in Greece

Development occurs according to the rhythm that is established by the genetic potential and the influence of environmental factors. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the child's residence area and maternal education on child's motor development. Eight hundred children (384 boys and 416 girls, aged 37-72 months), randomly selected from daycare centres and kindergartens of rural and urban areas of Northern Greece, were tested on the two motor subscales (A, locomotor; and D, eye-hand coordination) of the Griffiths Test No II. With respect to their residence, 610 children lived in urban and 190 lived in rural areas. In terms of education, 530 mothers were formally educated and 270 were highly educated. The results of this study suggest that motor development of preschool-aged children is associated with both factors examined. Children who lived in urban areas had better performance on fine motor abilities than children who lived in rural areas. In contrast, rural children had a higher developmental quotient than urban children on the locomotor scale. With regard to mother's education, children of highly educated mothers had a higher mean developmental quotient on both scales. The findings reinforce the need for a safe and opportunity-rich environment, which ensures that children reach their full developmental potential.     

Cross‐cultural assessment of the Contextual Memory Test (CMT)

The Contextual Memory Test (CMT) measures aspects of memory and metamemory of people with cognitive disabilities. The assessment tool was originally developed and standardized in the United States. The objectives of this study were: (1) to evaluate the applicability of the CMT to an Israeli population; (2) to further investigate the construct validity of the CMT to discriminate among age groups; and (3) to analyse the 40 items on the CMT from a cultural point of view. The CMT was administered to 217 typical Israeli adults, grouped into three age categories, closely matching those in the US normative study (Toglia, 1993). Similar levels of performance were obtained for Israelis and Americans on the various test components. Statistically significant differences between American and Israeli subjects' performance levels were evident in three memory components in the elderly groups (group 3) and in only two memory components in the young group (group 1). In addition, within‐sample comparisons of the three Israeli age groups yielded significant age effects for recall, recognition, strategy use and general awareness. This study confirmed discriminant validity for the CMT. The tool seems to be highly appropriate for use by occupational therapists in assessing memory and metamemory with American and Israeli adult subjects. The relatively small size of the age groups and the lack of random selection of subjects are limitations of this study. Therefore, it is recommended that the study be replicated with a larger and randomized sample. The multifaceted nature of the assessment provides much more information than traditional recall scores, and the metamemory components enhance both differential diagnosis and appropriate planning of treatment. Copyright © 2000 Whurr Publishers Ltd.