The postprandial glucose profile in the diabetic pregnancy

OBJECTIVE: A controversy exists regarding the time to monitor blood glucose in the diabetic pregnancy (60 or 120 minutes after meals). Using a novel approach that provides continuous measurement of blood glucose, we sought to determine postprandial glucose profile in the diabetic pregnancy. STUDY DESIGN: Subjects were connected to a continuous glucose monitoring system for 72 consecutive hours. A continuous glucose monitoring system measures the interstitial glucose levels in subcutaneous tissue every 5 minutes. Women were instructed to record the time of each meal during the study period. For each meal, the first 240 minutes were analyzed. RESULTS: Sixty-five women participated in the study: 26 women were treated by diet alone; 19 women received insulin therapy, and 20 women had type 1 diabetes mellitus. The time interval from meal to peak postprandial glucose levels was similar in all the evaluated types of diabetic pregnancies and in good and poor control insulin-treated patients with gestational diabetes mellitus (approximately 90 minutes). Failure to return to preprandial glucose values within a 3-hour observation period was identified in approximately 50% of the patients. A similar postprandial glucose peak time was obtained for breakfast, lunch, and dinner in all study groups. Postprandial hypoglycemia events were noted in approximately 10% of the meals and occurred about 160 minutes after mealtime. CONCLUSION: The time interval for postprandial glucose peak in diabetic pregnancies is approximately 90 minutes after meals throughout the day and is not affected by the level of glycemic control. This information should be considered in the treatment of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy.     

Management of women with one abnormal oral glucose tolerance test value reduces adverse outcome in pregnancy

In this study we sought to test the hypothesis that treatment of women with one abnormal oral glucose tolerance test value will result in reduction of adverse outcome. One hundred twenty-six women with one abnormal oral glucose tolerance test value and 146 women in the control group (normal oral glucose tolerance test values) participated in a prospective study during the third trimester of pregnancy. The subjects with one abnormal test result were randomized into treated (group 1) and untreated groups (group II). Group 1 subjects were treated with a strict diabetic protocol to maintain tight glycemic control by means of diet and insulin therapy. Group 2 subjects tested their capillary blood glucose for a baseline period. The study revealed that the level of glycemic control was similar before initiation of therapy (mean capillary blood glucose 118 +/- 14 vs. 119 +/- 15 mg/dl, p = NS) for groups 1 and 2, respectively. There was a significant difference in mean capillary blood glucose (95 +/- 10 vs. 119 +/- 15 mg/dl, p less than 0.0001), preprandial, and postprandial determinations between the treated and untreated groups. The overall incidence of neonatal metabolic complications (4% vs. 14%, p less than 0.05) and large infants (6% vs. 24%, p less than 0.03) was significantly lower in the treated group. Comparison between the control (normal oral glucose tolerance test) and the untreated groups showed a significantly higher incidence of large infants and metabolic complications. No difference was found between the normal and treated groups. Thus we conclude that treatment of individuals with one abnormal oral glucose tolerance test value will result in significant reduction in adverse outcome in pregnancy.     

Preterm delivery in normoalbuminuric, diabetic women without preeclampsia: the role of metabolic control

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the importance of glycemic regulation on the risk of preterm delivery in women with normoalbuminuria and no preeclampsia later in pregnancy. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A prospective study of 71 women with type 1 diabetes mellitus where complete data were collected on HbA1c, insulin dose, and albumin excretion rate from week 12 and every second week hereafter. Fundus photography was performed and diurnal blood pressure measured three times during pregnancy. RESULTS: The preterm rate was 23% and women delivering preterm showed higher HbA1c throughout pregnancy. At regression analysis HbA1c was the strongest predictor for preterm delivery from week 6 to 32, also when including insulin dose, BMI, age, duration of diabetes, and diurnal blood pressure. The risk of delivering preterm was more than 40% when HbA1c was above 7.7% in week 8. Diurnal blood pressure was not found associated with preterm delivery. CONCLUSION: The quality of glycemic regulation in the early and mid-pregnancy is a major, independent risk factor for preterm delivery in normoalbuminuric diabetic women without preeclampsia.     

Pregnancy Outcome in Gestational Diabetes with Preconceptional Diabetes Counselling

One hundred and thirty-six women with known previous gestational diabetes and normal glucose tolerance between pregnancies attended a preconceptional clinic at least 2 months before conception, and were regularly consulted by a diabetological team. Evaluation consisted of oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), mean blood glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin and management by self-blood-glucose monitoring (SBGM) and nutritional counselling. When these patients were compared to a group of 154 patients with gestational diabetes who attended our clinic at different stages of pregnancy, the former had improved glucose homeostasis whereas the latter had more frequent elevations of fasting and postprandial glucose levels throughout pregnancy. This group had also more maternal complications and higher Caesarean section rates. Congenital anomalies were 0.65% among offspring of nonattenders, while none occurred in those with preconceptional counselling. Macrosomia and hypoglycaemia were significant neonatal complications in infants of nonattending mothers. We concur with the recommendation that preconceptional counselling in gestational diabetics is required to improve glucose homeostasis throughout pregnancy, and that appropriate evaluation of glucose intolerance should be included as part of prospective family planning.     

Risks of preeclampsia and adverse neonatal outcomes among women with pregestational diabetes mellitus. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units

OBJECTIVES: This study was undertaken to determine the frequencies of preeclampsia and adverse neonatal outcomes among women with pregestational diabetes. STUDY DESIGN: This was a prospective observation of pregnancy outcomes among 462 women with pregestational diabetes mellitus (White classes B-F) and singleton pregnancies who were enrolled in a multicenter trial to compare low-dose aspirin with placebo for preeclampsia prevention. The main outcome measures were preeclampsia and neonatal outcomes. RESULTS: Among 462 women with pregestational diabetes, 92 (20%) had preeclampsia. Preeclampsia frequency rose significantly with increasing severity of diabetes according to White classification (class B, 11%; class C, 22%; class D, 21%; class R plus class F, 36%; P <.0001). Preeclampsia was also more common among women who had proteinuria at baseline (28% vs 18%; odds ratio, 1.75; 95% confidence interval, 1.02-3.01). Frequency of preterm delivery at <35 weeks' gestation rose greatly with increasing severity of diabetes (P =.0002). Women with proteinuria at baseline were significantly more likely to be delivered at <35 weeks' gestation (29% vs 13%; odds ratio, 2.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.5-4.6) and to have small-for-gestational-age infants (14% vs 3%; odds ratio, 5. 4; 95% confidence interval, 2.7-17.7), and they were less likely to have large-for-gestational-age infants (14% vs 40%; odds ratio, 0.2; 95% confidence interval, 0.1-0.5). CONCLUSION: Among women with pregestational diabetes mellitus, the frequency of preeclampsia rose with increasing severity of diabetes. Proteinuria early in pregnancy was associated with marked increases in adverse neonatal outcomes independent of preeclampsia development.     

Haemoglobin A1c levels in normal and diabetic pregnancies

Serial measurements of the HbA1c levels were performed during pregnancy in 4 groups of patients attending Antenatal Clinics: 36 normal pregnancies; 16 pregnancies in established insulin-dependent diabetic patients; 9 patients with gestational diabetes diagnosed during that pregnancy; and 21 patients who had been diagnosed as having gestational diabetes in at least one previous pregnancy. In the normal pregnancy HbA1c levels showed a small but significant increase from the end of the first trimester to delivery despite blood glucose levels remaining constant throughout. In the insulin-dependent and gestational diabetic patients, blood glucose levels remained significantly higher than in the normal throughout pregnancy but only in insulin-dependent diabetic patients and the newly diagnosed untreated gestational diabetic patients were the HbA1c levels significantly higher than in the normal. In those patients who had previous pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes, blood glucose levels were significantly higher than in the normal but HbA1c levels were not. This dissociation between blood glucose and HbA1c levels in gestational diabetic pregnancies in particular limits the value of HbA1c levels in monitoring antidiabetic treatment in such pregnancies.     

监测新生儿血糖的临床意义

目的了解新生儿刚出生时的血糖情况以及对新生儿血糖异常的防治.方法选择高危妊娠儿、早产儿、双胎及剖宫产、阴道分娩的新生儿1036例,取新生儿足跟血或脐血3 μl,做微量血糖监测分析.结果发现产后第1天新生儿低血糖233例(22.49%),第2天低血糖15例(1.45%),第3天低血糖32例(3.09%).剖宫产组新生儿及高危儿组的低血糖发现率均比阴道分娩组高.结论新生儿血糖监测极其重要,可及时发现和纠正新生儿低血糖.对于高危妊娠儿、剖宫产儿、糖尿病巨大儿、低体重儿应早哺乳,补液是防治新生儿糖代谢紊乱的有效措施,可减少围生期病率及死亡率.     

Clinical outcomes of pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes(1)

OBJECTIVE:To evaluate predictors of neonatal hypoglycemia and macrosomia in 107 consecutive pregnancies in type 1 diabetic women. METHODS:We conducted a case record analysis of singleton type 1 diabetic pregnancies between January 1994 and January 1999 following institution of standardized management. RESULTS:The duration of diabetes in the women was 12.9 +/- 6.8 years, and 44 were primigravidas. The mean HbA1c throughout pregnancy was 7.2 +/- 0.8%. There was no relationship between neonatal blood glucose (checked before the second feed) and HbA1c at any point in pregnancy or mean pregnancy HbA1c (R = 0.20, P >.1). However, there was a negative correlation between neonatal blood glucose and maternal blood glucose during labor (R = -0.33, P <.001). When maternal blood glucose during labor was greater than 8 mM (144 mg/dL), neonatal blood glucose was usually less than 2.5 mM (mean 1.7 +/- 0.4 mM or 31 mg/dL). There was no relationship between mean HbA1c and birth weight (R = 0.02, P >.1) or between maximum insulin dose and birth weight (R = 0.09, P >.1). Fetal abdominal circumference measured by ultrasound at 34 weeks correlated strongly with birth weight (R = 0.72, P <.001). CONCLUSION:Neonatal hypoglycemia correlates with maternal hyperglycemia in labor, not with HbA1c during pregnancy. Macrosomia does not correlate with HbA1c during pregnancy.     

Preeclampsia in Jordan: incidence,risk factors,and its associated maternal and neonatal outcomes

Objectives: To estimate the incidence of preeclampsia among Jordanian pregnant women, determine its risk factors and its associated neonatal morbidity and mortality.

Methods: The study is a part of a comprehensive national study of perinatal mortality that was conducted in Jordan. This study included all women who gave birth in the selected hospitals during the study period. Maternal and medical conditions during pregnancy and neonatal outcomes were compared between women who developed preeclampsia and who did not.

Results: This study included a total of 21,928 women. The overall incidence rate of preeclampsia was 1.3%. Obesity (OR?=?2.6) and high blood pressure (OR?=?11.9) were significantly associated with increasing odds of preeclampsia. The risk of preeclampsia was 2.3 times higher in first pregnancies than that in second or more pregnancies. The rates of low birth weight (LBW) delivery (32.5% vs. 8.3%), and prematurity (30.8% vs. 7%), and the neonatal mortality rate (81 vs. 12 per 1000 live births) were significantly higher among women with preeclampsia.

Conclusions: The overall incidence rate of preeclampsia was 1.3%. Preeclampsia was significantly associated with maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality as well as increasing vaginal operative delivery, cesarean section, LBW, and birth asphyxia.     

Low gestational weight gain improves infant and maternal pregnancy outcomes in overweight and obese Korean women with gestational diabetes mellitus

Objective.?The aim of the study was to retrospectively assess what was the optimal gestational weight gain to have better maternal and neonatal outcomes in overweight and obese Korean women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) who maintained normoglycemia throughout pregnancy by dietary modification, exercise, and/or insulin treatment.

Study design.?We performed a hospital-based study of 215 GDM women with prepregnancy BMI?≥?25 kg/m². Body weight, glucose homeostasis, lipid profiles, insulin treatment, and maternal outcomes were collected as predictors of neonatal birth weight. We divided the subjects into three groups according to modified Institute of Medicine (IOM) guidelines for weight gain during pregnancy: inadequate (n?=?42), normal (n?=?96), and excessive (n?=?77) groups.

Results.?Excessive weight gain resulted in increased macrosomia, HbA_1c at delivery, and postprandial blood glucose levels, but fasting blood glucose levels were not significantly different among the groups. The inadequate weight gain group (2.4?kg weight gain during pregnancy) had better neonatal outcomes and better maternal glycemic control with fewer requiring insulin treatment.

Conclusion.?Minimal weight gain, well below IOM recommendations, and tight control of blood glucose levels during pregnancy with proper medical management and dietary modification may eliminate most of the adverse pregnancy outcomes experienced by obese GDM Asian women.     

Ambulatory blood pressure as predictor of preeclampsia in diabetic pregnancies with respect to urinary albumin excretion rate and glycemic regulation

BACKGROUND: Twenty-four-hour ambulatory blood pressure was evaluated as a predictor of preeclampsia in women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus with respect to urinary albumin excretion rate and glycemic regulation. METHODS: One hundred and fifty-one women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus were consecutively recruited from the outpatient maternity ward for 24 hour ambulatory blood pressure measurement with a portable monitor (SpaceLab 90207). Blood pressure was measured three times during pregnancy and once after delivery. Evaluation was performed with receiver-operator-characteristics curves in primiparous women. Stratified analysis and multiple regression was applied with respect to urinary albumin excretion rate, HbA1c, age, duration of diabetes mellitus, uric acid, and BMI. RESULTS: The incidence of preeclampsia was significantly associated with increasing urinary albumin excretion rate, primiparity, and ambulatory blood pressure. Ambulatory blood pressure was associated with HbA1c throughout pregnancy adjusted for urinary albumin excretion rate. The ambulatory blood pressure was higher from first trimester throughout pregnancy in women developing preeclampsia compared to women who did not have preeclampsia. The best sensitivity and specificity for predicting preeclampsia in primiparous women were at cut-off values of systolic and diastolic day ambulatory blood pressure above 122 and 74 mmHg, respectively. The relative risk of preeclampsia was significantly higher when ambulatory blood pressure was above the cut-off values and increased further with higher urinary albumin excretion rate. CONCLUSIONS: The relationship between ambulatory blood pressure and preeclampsia is not confined to women with macroalbuminuria but is also present in women with normo- and microalbuminuria. Poor glycemic control and increased urinary albumin excretion rate is associated with preeclampsia when ambulatory blood pressure is above cut-off values of 122/74 mmHg (systole/diastole). Ambulatory blood pressure is a reliable measurement for prediction of preeclampsia in primiparous women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.     

Continuous glucose monitoring for the evaluation of gravid women with type 1 diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: To compare the daily glycemic profile reflected by continuous and intermittent blood glucose monitoring in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes and to compare the treatment protocols based on the two monitoring methods. METHODS: The study sample consisted of 34 gravid patients at gestational weeks 16-32, with type 1 diabetes being treated by multiple insulin injections. Data derived from the continuous glucose monitoring system for 72 hours were compared with finger stick glucose measurements performed 6-8 times per day. During the study period, patients documented the time of food intake, insulin injections, and hypoglycemic events. Data on demographics, gravidity, parity, body mass index, hemoglobin A1c, and fructosamine levels were collected for each patient. RESULTS: An average (+/- standard deviation) of 780 +/- 54 glucose measurements was recorded for each patient with continuous glucose monitoring. The mean total time of hyperglycemia (glucose level greater than 140 mg/dL) undetected by the finger stick method was 192 +/- 28 minutes per day. Nocturnal hypoglycemic events (glucose level less than 50 mg/dL) were recorded in 26 patients; in all cases, there was an interval of 1-4 hours before clinical manifestations appeared or the event was revealed by random blood glucose examination. Based on the additional information obtained by continuous monitoring, the insulin therapeutic regimen was adjusted in 24 patients (70%). CONCLUSION: Continuous glucose monitoring can diagnose high postprandial blood glucose levels and nocturnal hypoglycemic events that are unrecognized by intermittent blood glucose monitoring and may serve as a basis for determining treatment regimens. A large, prospective study on maternal and neonatal outcome is needed to evaluate the clinical implications of this new monitoring technique.     

Mild gestational hypertension remote from term: progression and outcome

OBJECTIVE: Limited information is available regarding the progression of disease in women with mild gestational hypertension. Our purpose was to describe the prognostic signs in the natural course of mild gestational hypertension and pregnancy outcomes in women who were remote from term with mild gestational hypertension that was expectantly managed. STUDY DESIGN: Women with mild gestational hypertension participating in an outpatient hypertension monitoring program were studied. Inclusion criteria were patients with a singleton pregnancy between 24 and 35 weeks' gestation who had no proteinuria by dipstick (0 or trace) on the first 2 days of program participation. Progression to preeclampsia was the primary outcome. The rate of progression to severe preeclampsia, obstetric complications, and neonatal outcomes were secondary measures. Data were compared by independent Student t and Fisher exact tests where applicable. RESULTS: A total of 748 patients were studied during the observation period; preeclampsia (persistent proteinuria > or = 1+) developed in 343 (46%), and 72 (9.6%) had antepartum progression to severe preeclampsia. No significant differences in maternal age, race, marital status, or tobacco use were observed between those women in whom persistent proteinuria developed and those in whom it did not develop. Gestational age of the infants at delivery (36.5 +/- 2.4 vs 37.4 +/- 2.0 weeks), birth weight (2752 +/- 767 vs 3038 +/- 715 g), incidence of small-for-gestational-age newborns (24.8% vs 13.8%), and duration of neonatal hospital stay (7.1 +/- 10 vs 5.0 +/- 9.3 days) differed significantly in the patients with versus those without proteinuria (P <.001 for all). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with mild gestational hypertension remote from term, 46% ultimately had preeclampsia, with progression to severe disease in 9.6%. The development of proteinuria is associated with an earlier gestational age at delivery, lower birth weight, and an increased incidence of small-for-gestational age newborns.     

Low values on 50 gram glucose challenge test or oral 100 gram glucose tolerance test are associated with good perinatal outcome.

We set out to reevaluate the hypothesis that high normal (negative) results of 50 g oral glucose challenge test or high normal glucose level on 100 g oral glucose tolerance test are associated with complications of pregnancy and delivery. This was a prospective study involving 735 nondiabetic women. The first group (n=352) was made up of pregnant women with normal 50 g oral glucose challenge test without previous history of diabetes mellitus or gestational diabetes. The second group (n=383) was made up of pregnant women without previous history of diabetes mellitus or gestational diabetes with an abnormal 50 g oral glucose challenge test and with normal 100 g oral glucose tolerance test and not more than one previous delivery. In nondiabetic women, we demonstrated a positive correlation between high normal 50 g glucose challenge test values and the incidence of preeclampsia, caesarean section rate, macrosomia, neonatal hyperlipidaemia and minor congenital abnormalities. We failed to confirm any relationship to any pregnancy complication in pregnant women with 2-hour glucose levels in the range 6.7-9.1 mmol/l on the 100 g oral glucose tolerance test. We have demonstrated a positive relationship between the incidence of premature rupture of membranes and 1-hour glucose level, caesarean section rate and maternal 1-hour glucose level or 1-hour glucose level minus fasting glucose level of 4.2 mmol/l, instrumental delivery rate and maternal 3-hour glucose level, incidence of neonatal macrosomia and 1-hour glucose level, and incidence of neonatal hyperlipidaemia and at least one high but normal glucose level on the 100 g oral glucose tolerance test. With regard to pregnancy and delivery complications there were no significant difference if the high normal value is on the 50 g glucose challenge test or on the 100 g oral glucose tolerance test. It is concluded that one high normal 100 g oral glucose tolerance test or high normal 50 g glucose challenge test are associated with adverse pregnancy and delivery outcome. Nondiabetic women with 50 g glucose challenge test value of 6.1 mmol/l and/or 100 g oral glucose tolerance test values of 5 mmol/l have a favourable pregnancy and delivery outcome.     

Optimal timing for postprandial glucose measurement in pregnant women with diabetes and a non-diabetic pregnant population evaluated by the Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS)

OBJECTIVE: Using the Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS; Medtronic Minimed) for a group of pregnant women with and without glucose intolerance, we attempted to answer the following questions: (1) when does the physiological peak of postprandial glucose occur?; (2) do non-diabetic pregnant women and pregnant women with diabetes have different postprandial glucose profiles?; and (3) what is the optimal time for postprandial glucose measurement rated according to clinical outcome? METHODS: We included 53 pregnant women in our study. Based on the criteria of the German Diabetes Association (fasting, 5.0 mmol/L; 1-h, 10.0 mmol/L; 2-h, 8.6 mmol/L) we included 13 women with gestational diabetes, four with type 1 diabetes and 36 non-diabetic pregnant (NDP) women. Gestational and type 1 diabetics were classed as one group: pregnancy complicated by diabetes (PCD). Patients with carbohydrate intolerance underwent dietary counseling in accordance with the recommendations of the American Diabetes Association. Patients received a CGMS for use over 72 h. This was calibrated seven times a day with an Accu-Check. The pre- and postprandial glucose levels were documented at 15-min intervals for 3 h from the beginning of each meal. The postprandial data from the three meals were added. The group was divided according to three clinical outcome parameters: mode of delivery, birth weight percentile, and diabetes-associated complications. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences between groups were found for body mass index, fetal birth weight and oral glucose tolerance test. No significant differences were found for age, parity and gestational age, mode of delivery, and diabetes-associated complications. The sensor provided similar numbers of measurements in both groups (278+/-43 vs. 298+/-73, P = 0.507). The postprandial glucose peak was reached after 82+/-18 min in the non-diabetics vs. 74+/-23 min in the PCD group (not significant). Postprandial glucose values were normally slightly higher in PCD (not significant). We added the postprandial glucose values at each time interval for the three meals for each day. For the sum, there was a significant difference between the measurements at 120 min and at 135 min postprandial (P < 0.05). Dividing the group by clinical outcome showed a significant difference between the postprandial time intervals of 75 min and 105 min (P < 0.05). In addition, the time interval was different from 60 min to 135 min for the mode of delivery and birth weight percentile (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The 120-min interval is too long and has a lower correlation to clinical outcome parameters than earlier measurements. Our findings show that the optimal time for testing is between 45 and 120 min postprandial. Based on our practical experience and dietary recommendations, we would prefer a 60-min interval, because patients can calculate this more easily and can have more freedom to eat the recommended number of snacks.     

单纯葡萄糖筛查试验异常对妊娠结局和新生儿体质指标的影响

目的 探讨妊娠期单纯葡萄糖筛查试验(GCT)异常对妊娠结局和新生儿体质指标的影响.方法 收集2006年11月至2007年12月于中山大学附属第一医院妇产科住院分娩的孕妇214例,于孕24～28周时行50 g GCT,若服糖后1 h血糖≥7.8 mmol/L,再行75 g口服葡萄糖耐量试验(OGTT),空腹血糖及服糖后1 h、2 h、3 h血糖标准分别为5.3 mmol/L、10.0 mmol/L、8.6 mmol/L和7.8 mmol/L,4项血糖值均未达到上述标准,为OGTT正常.50 g GCT异常、但75 g OGTY正常的116例孕妇及其新生儿为单纯GCT异常组;50 g GCT正常的98例孕妇及其新生儿为GCT正常组.对两组母儿结局进行分析.记录两组新生儿的出生体重、身长、头围、肩周围值;于出生后24 h内以皮尺测定其上臂围,以直尺测定其肱三头肌皮褶厚度及腹壁皮下脂肪厚度.结果 (1)两组母儿结局:单纯GCT异常组孕妇的阴道助产率[10.3%(12/116)]、羊水过多发生率[5.2%(6/116)]、胎膜早破发生率[13.8%(16/116)]、胎儿窘迫发生率[20.7%(24/116)]与GCT正常组[分别为4.1%(4/98)、10.2%(10/98)、17.3%(17/98)、13.3%(13/98)]比较,差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05);单纯GCT异常组孕妇的剖宫产率[72.4%(84/116)]、阴道顺产率[17.2%(20/116)]、大于胎龄儿出生率[25.9%(30/116)],与GCT正常组[分别为51.0%(50/98)、44.9%(44/98)、6.1%(6/98)]比较,差异均有统计学意义(P＜0.05).(2)新生儿体质指标:单纯GCT异常组新生儿出生体重为(3.4±0.4)kg,与GCT正常组的(3.3±0.4)kg比较,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);单纯GCT异常组新生儿身长[(49.9±1.3)cm]、头围[(33.4±1.5)cm]、肩周围[(35.4±2.3)cm]、上臂围[(11.0±0.7)cm]、肱三头肌皮褶厚度[(9.7±1.0)mm]、腹壁皮下脂肪厚度[(7.2±1.2)mm]等体质指标,与GCT正常组[分别为(49.7±1.4)cm、(33.8±1.7)cm、(35.0±2.3)cm、(10.9±0.8)cm、(9.9±1.4)mm、(7.2±1.0)mm]比较,差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 单纯GCT异常对新生儿体质指标无影响,但GCT异常的孕妇剖宫产率、大于胎龄儿出生率、新生儿出生体重均高于GCT正常的孕妇.     

Comparison of placental findings in type 1 and type 2 diabetic pregnancies

IntroductionThe aim of this study is to compare placental pathology and related clinical parameters between gravidas with type 1 and type 2 pregestational diabetes.MethodsThis is a retrospective cohort study of women with singleton gestations and pregestational diabetes who delivered at Women and Infants Hospital from 2003 to 2011. Pathology reports, maternal and neonatal outcomes were extracted and compared between the two groups.ResultsIn our cohort, 293 pregnancies were studied, including 117 with type 1 diabetes and 176 with type 2 diabetes. Women with type 1 diabetes had worse glycemic control during pregnancy, as characterized by higher HbA1c values and average fasting and postprandial blood sugars. More infants from the type 1 group were admitted to Neonatal ICU. Pregestational diabetes led to small for gestational age (SGA) placentas in nearly 20% pregnancies and large for gestational age (LGA) placentas in 30% of cases. Both groups shared similar incidences of preeclampsia and significant placental pathology related to uteroplacental (maternal) and fetal circulatory disorders; however, maternal decidual vasculopathy and placentas with insufficiency (fetal-to-placental weight ratio < 10th %tile) were more commonly found in placentas from women with type 2 diabetes.DiscussionBoth types of pregestational diabetes have significant impact on placental growth and development. The comparison between the two groups suggests different pathogenetic mechanisms and may be helpful for better management of diabetic pregnancy.     

孕前糖尿病合并妊娠临床管理新进展

孕前糖尿病合并妊娠母儿不良结局增加。孕前糖尿病孕妇计划妊娠是避免和减少胎儿先天畸形等的重要一步。推荐的糖化血红蛋白控制目标孕前为<6.5%,孕期为<6.0%。糖尿病合并症的筛查及管理至关重要,血压控制目标应更谨慎,尤其是有糖尿病肾脏疾病者。对于1型糖尿病患者,孕期动态血糖监测有助于改善血糖控制水平。胰岛素是孕期糖尿病患者的一线治疗方案。优化血糖控制和药物治疗方案,并密切关注并发症,能够降低孕前糖尿病合并妊娠的母儿不良结局风险,并确保孕前、妊娠期间和产后的糖尿病管理质量。     

妊娠期糖尿病产后糖代谢异常的危险因素

目的通过对妊娠期糖尿病(GDM)患者进行产后随访,回顾性分析影响GDM患者产后糖代谢变化的高危因素。方法收集2009年1月至2011年6月在河北省沧州市中心医院门诊产前检查并分娩的GDM患者236例,产后42d回访者158例,记录其孕前和孕期信息,包括:孕期年龄、身高、孕前体重、有否糖尿病家族史、孕期使用胰岛素情况、孕期并发症及合并症情况、新生儿出生时情况;并按OGTT试验结果分为研究组和对照组,进行高危因素筛查。结果研究组为60例糖耐量异常者,包括39例IGT/IFG患者和21例DM患者;对照组为98例糖耐量正常者,比较两组患者孕前、孕期和妊娠结局情况,结果可见高龄、糖尿病家族史、孕期应用胰岛素、合并子痫前期、早产是产后发生糖代谢异常的高危因素,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论存在高危因素的GDM患者产后糖代谢异常发生率较高,应针对性地对GDM患者进行产后临床筛查和随访。     

Perinatal complications in women with gestational diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to examine the outcome of the pregnancy and neonatal period in 1) women with gestational diabetes mellitus and non-diabetic pregnant women, and 2) in women with early and late diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus. METHODS: Included were 327 women with gestational diabetes mellitus and 295 non-diabetic women, who were screened with a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test because of risk factors for gestational diabetes. Women with gestational diabetes mellitus were treated with low-caloric diet and insulin when appropriate, while women in the control group received routine antenatal care. RESULTS: Gestational age at delivery was significantly lower in the group with gestational diabetes mellitus, both when considering all deliveries (39.1+/-1.7 weeks versus 39.8+/-2.0 weeks, p<0.05) and only those with spontaneous onset of labor (38.8+/-2.0 weeks versus 40.0+/-1.6 weeks, p<0.05). The frequency of macrosomia was increased, although not statistically significant (8% vs. 2%, p=0.07), and the rate of admission to the neonatal ward was significantly increased (18% vs. 9%, p<0.05) in the group with gestational diabetes. Women with early diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus had a significantly increased need for insulin treatment during pregnancy (36% vs. 9% p<0.05) and a significantly higher occurrence of diabetes mellitus at follow-up from two months until three years postpartum. CONCLUSIONS: This study of women with gestational diabetes mellitus and non-diabetic pregnant women showed that gestational diabetes mellitus was associated with a significantly lower gestational age at delivery and an increased rate of admission to the neonatal ward. Women diagnosed with GDM before 20 weeks of gestation had an increased need for insulin treatment during pregnancy and a high risk of subsequent overt DM, compared with women diagnosed with GDM later in pregnancy.