Reasons for the diagnostic discordance between clinicians and researchers in schizophrenia in the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort

Background: The diagnosis of schizophrenia by clinicians is not always accurate in terms of operational diagnostic criteria despite the fact that these diagnoses form the basis of case registers and routine statistics. This poses a challenge to psychiatric research. We studied the reasons for diagnostic discordance between clinicians and researchers. Methods: The Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort (n = 11,017) was followed from mid-gestation to the end of the 31st year. Psychiatric outcome was ascertained through linkage to the national hospital discharge register containing clinical diagnoses made by the attending physician. The hospital notes of all subjects admitted to hospital during the period 1982–1997 due to psychiatric disorder were reviewed and 475 research, operational DSM-III-R diagnoses were formulated. Results: Ninety-six cases met operational criteria for schizophrenia. Fifty-five (57 %) had concordant diagnoses: both the clinical and research diagnoses were schizophrenia. Forty-one (43 %) had discordant diagnoses: the clinical diagnosis was other than schizophrenia (mainly schizophreniform or other psychosis). Discordant cases were more likely to be older at onset, experience a shorter treatment duration, fewer treatment episodes, and to have a comorbid diagnosis mental retardation. Conclusions: Clinicians do not make the diagnosis of schizophrenia as often as the application of operational criteria would suggest they should. The discordance between clinical diagnosis and the research, operational diagnosis is especially likely in cases having late onset and few contacts to psychiatric hospital. Accepted: 12 December 2002 Correspondence to Kristiina Moilanen, MD     

Patients' and their relatives' causal explanations of schizophrenia

Background: Previous studies with schizophrenia patients and their relatives which have been carried out in the western part of Germany and in Austria have demonstrated a strong tendency towards assuming psychosocial stress as a cause of schizophrenia. The question arises as to whether patients with schizophrenia and their relatives in the eastern part of Germany (former German Democratic Republic) share these beliefs. Methods: Problem-centered interviews were conducted with 100 schizophrenia patients living in the catchment area of the university hospital who were in psychiatric outpatient treatment. Thirty-six relatives were also interviewed at the same time. Results: Both patients and relatives most frequently reported psychosocial stress as a cause of the illness. Sixty-two per cent of the patients and 86 % of the relatives reported more than one cause. However, the majority of them did not explicitly link these causes to one another. Discussion: Similarities between the results of this study and those of previous studies prevail. However, there are some differences with regard to the role attributed to socialisation and society. Whereas there is a stronger tendency to hold the family responsible for the illness in the West, in the East the social conditions are more frequently considered to be of etiological relevance. Inconsistencies between patients' and relatives' beliefs and the results of psychiatric research on the causes of schizophrenia suggest a need to provide specific psychoeducation for both. Received: 28 October 2002 / Accepted: 4 November 2002 Correspondence to Dr. Anita Holzinger     

Effectiveness of psychoeducational intervention for rural Chinese families experiencing schizophrenia

Background: The aim of this study was to explore the characteristics and efficacy of psychoeducational family intervention for persons with schizophrenia in rural China. Methods: A cluster randomised controlled trial of psychoeducational family intervention for families experiencing schizophrenia (three groups, 326 cases) was conducted in Xinjin County, Chengdu. Treatment groups consisted of family intervention and medication, medication alone, and a control. Results: The results showed a gain in knowledge, a change in the relatives' caring attitudes towards the patients, and an increase in treatment compliance in the psychoeducational family intervention group (p < 0.05, 0.001). Most importantly, the relapse rate over 9 months in this group (16.3 %) was half that of the drug-only group (37.8 %), and just over one-quarter of that of the control group (61.5 %) (p < 0.05). Antipsychotic drug treatment and families' attitudes towards patients after the 9-month follow-up were significantly associated with clinical outcome (p < 0.05). Conclusions: In rural China, family intervention should focus on improving the relatives' recognition of illness, the caring attitude towards the patients, treatment compliance, relapse prevention, and the training of the patients' social functioning. This trial, one of the largest in the literature, has shown that psychoeducational family intervention is effective and suitable for psychiatric rehabilitation in Chinese rural communities. Received: 16 April 2002 / Accepted: 29 August 2002 Correspondence to Mao-Sheng Ran, M. D., Ph. D.     

慢性精神分裂症患者生命质量的性别差异

目的：探讨长期住院的慢性精神分裂症患者生命质量的性别差异及影响因素。方法：采用健康状况调查问卷（SF-36）、阳性与阴性症状量表（PANSS）、治疗中出现的症状量表（TESS）对连续住院时间超过5年的72例男性、47例女性慢性精神分裂症患者进行评定,选用60名健康自愿者作为对照。结果：男性患者生命质量显菩低于女性;精神病状态、药物种类、药物不良反应、年龄、住院时间对男女生命质量均有影响;男性的生命质量还受病期、婚姻状况的影响。结论：慢性精神分裂症患者的生命质量低下．应给予更多关注。     

Accessibility and pathways to psychiatric care in a community-based mental health system

Background The careful analysis of pathways to specialist mental health care, within the context of community-based services, is important because it allows a detailed understanding of the inter-relationship between the component parts of the whole system of care. Moreover, it permits a comparison of service functioning to made over time, and is one way to operationalise the measurement of accessibility to services. The aims of this study are to describe: (i) the pathways followed by patients with new episodes of care to community-based mental health services, (ii) the time intervals from onset of the problem to first contact with services, and then to onward referral to specialist care (accessibility), and (iii) to explore the short-term costs associated with different pathways. Methods Using data from the South-Verona Psychiatric Case Register, all new patients referred to any of the facilities which are part of the South-Verona Community Psychiatric Service (CPS) over a 6-month period (November 1999 – May 2000) were eligible to enter the study. Patients were interviewed by telephone using the Italian translation of the WHO Encounter Form. The costs of care provided in the 3 months following the index contact were assessed for all patients. Results The most common route to mental health services is via a GP (40 %), followed by a referral from a hospital doctor (26 %) and self-referral (23 %). The median interval from onset to direct contact with the South-Verona CPS (12 weeks) was shorter than the intervals from onset to direct contact with other service providers (the median interval for contact with GPs and hospital doctors was 24 weeks). The intervals varied considerably from 1 week (for attempted suicide), to 1.5 years (for disturbed behaviour). The results of backward regression modelling revealed a significant relationship between patients' characteristics and community costs or total psychiatric costs (44 % and 53 % of the variance explained respectively). Conclusion When the results are compared with a directly comparable earlier study in South-Verona, it is apparent that between 1991 and 1999 an increasing proportion of patients with insomnia and somatic disorders presented first to GPs, while a decreasing proportion of patients over the years sought care directly from specialist care. An increase in the role of local GPs as gatekeepers has, therefore, emerged. A prompt assessment by the South-Verona CPS of the patients' presenting problems was also confirmed, and this can be explained by the ‘drop-in’ approach at the Mental Health Centre, where patients can seek specialist care directly, without previously attending GPs. This method of measuring time intervals along pathways is proposed as a way to operationalise accessibility to services in future. Accepted: 16 July 2001     

Attitudes about schizophrenia from the pilot site of the WPA worldwide campaign against the stigma of schizophrenia

Background: A series of surveys were conducted to assess the attitudes of the public, and other groups, toward those with schizophrenia. The aim of these surveys was to aid in the planning and evaluation of the WPA anti-stigma initiative in Alberta, Canada. Method: A questionnaire was devised and administered via telephone to over 1,200 individuals in three Alberta cities, and in paper and pencil format to 40 members of the Schizophrenia Society of Alberta and 67 medical students. Results: In contrast to some earlier findings, “loss of mind” was rated to be more disabling than any other handicapping condition. In general, respondents showed a relatively sophisticated understanding of schizophrenia and a higher level of acceptance than might have been predicted. Nonetheless, this acceptance was not as high for situations where closer personal contact was likely, and fears of dangerousness continue to be associated with schizophrenia. The majority of respondents, however, felt that treatment aided those with schizophrenia, expressed support for progressive programmes for the mentally ill, and stated that they would be willing to pay higher taxes so that programming could be improved. Conclusions The results do not support the utility of a broad approach for an anti-stigma campaign, but rather suggest a more specific focus, such as perceived dangerousness. Accepted: 17 June 2002     

Religious delusions in patients admitted to hospital with schizophrenia

Background Religious delusions are clinically important because they may be associated with selfharm and poorer outcomes from treatment. They have not been extensively researched. This study sought to investigate the prevalence of religious delusions in a sample of patients admitted to hospital with schizophrenia, to describe these delusions and to compare the characteristics of the patients with religious delusions with schizophrenia patients with all other types of delusion. Method A cross-sectional investigation was carried out. The prevalence of religious delusions was assessed and comparisons were made between religiously deluded patients and a control group on demographic, symptom, functioning and religious variables. One hundred and ninety-three subjects were examined of whom 24% had religious delusions. Results Patients with religious delusions had higher symptom scores (as measured by the PANSS), they were functioning less well (as measured by the GAF) and they were prescribed more medication than those patients with schizophrenia who had other types of delusion. Conclusion It is concluded that religious delusions are commonly found in schizophrenia and that by comparison with other patients who have schizophrenia, those patients with religious delusions appear to be more severely ill. This warrants further investigation. Accepted: 15 November 2001     

The temporal relationship between schizophrenia and crime

Background Little is known about the temporal relationship between illness onset and the possible beginning of a criminal career among people with schizophrenia, even though criminality, especially violent criminality, has been shown to be more common among people with schizophrenia than among people in general. Aim: The aim of this study was to analyse the temporal relationship between registered crime and contact to the psychiatric hospital system. Method: This is a register-based study merging data on the psychiatric career with criminal records. Results: Among the males with schizophrenia, 37% started a criminal career and 13% had committed first violent crime before first contact with the psychiatric hospital system. Conclusion: The criminality committed before first contact to the psychiatric hospital system is substantial, especially among males with schizophrenia. Accepted: 22 February 2003 Correspondence to Runa Munkner, MD     

Substance abuse in schizophrenia. A Singapore perspective

Background Most of the information on the prevalence and patterns of substance abuse in patients with schizophrenia has been from studies conducted in North America and Europe and data from Asian countries are conspicuously lacking. This study was undertaken with the aim to identify the prevalence and patterns of substance abuse among patients with first-episode schizophrenia in the city-state of Singapore. Methods All new patients with a diagnosis of first-episode schizophrenia or schizophreniform disorder who were seen in one calendar year in the only state mental institute in Singapore and its affiliated outpatient clinics were evaluated for a lifetime history of substance use. Results In a sample of 272 patients, 201 (73.6 %) were abstainers, 43 (15.8 %) had “mild” substance use and 28 (10.3 %) had “heavy” use patterns. Alcohol was the most frequently abused substance. The substance users were more likely to be males and were more likely to have a criminal record than abstainers. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first study that examines the co-morbidity of substance abuse in schizophrenia in an Asian population. Our findings once again highlight the fact that patients with schizophrenia are at a high risk for substance abuse. Accepted: 20 February 2002     

A factor analysis of chronic fatigue symptoms in a community-based sample

Background This study examined characteristics of fatigue in individuals with chronic fatigue from a community-based study. Most studies of chronic fatigue have been based on patients recruited from primary or tertiary care settings. Samples such as these might not be representative of patients within the general population. The purpose of this study was to determine the factor structure of participants' symptoms in a random community sample of individuals with chronic fatigue. Method A random sample of 18,675 respondents in Chicago received a brief telephone questionnaire designed to identify individuals with chronic fatigue. A group of 780 (4.2 %) with chronic fatigue received further interview via telephone questionnaire involving characteristics of their fatigue. The analyses for this study were based on those people identified with having chronic fatigue. A factor analysis was conducted on responses to questionnaire items, and a four-factor solution emerged. Mean factor scores were derived and analyzed in relation to sociodemographic characteristics and sample subgroups. Results The four factors were labeled: Lack of Energy, Physical Exertion, Cognitive Functioning, and Fatigue and Rest. Conclusions Results indicated that individuals with chronic fatigue have symptoms that can be differentiated into theoretically distinct factors. Accepted: 12 November 2001     

Insight and quality of life in long‐term hospitalized Japanese patients with chronic schizophrenia

Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between insight and quality of life (QOL) and the respective predictive factors in long‐term hospitalized patients with chronic schizophrenia. Methods: The present subjects were 47 Japanese patients with chronic schizophrenia who were hospitalized for >1 year (mean hospitalization period, 9.8 years). Assessments were made using the Scale of Unawareness of Mental Disorder (SUMD) and the EuroQoL‐5 Dimensions (EQ‐5D) scale. Sociodemographic details and illness‐related variables were also evaluated, including use of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. Results: There was no association between SUMD and EQ‐5D scores. Hallucinatory behavior was a predictor of good insight. Poor rapport was a predictor of bad insight. Poor attention was a predictor of bad QOL. Conclusion: The relationship between insight and QOL and the respective predictive factors might be different between acute and chronic stages. Further studies are needed to investigate how these changes occur.     

Outcome measures of interepisode bipolar patients in a Turkish sample

Background We aimed to study the correlations of several outcome measures in bipolar patients with the clinical features of interepisode period. Methods Bipolar patients who were diagnosed according to DSM-III-R or IV were contacted and asked for a further evaluation. Interepisode bipolar patients (n = 100) were interviewed with the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS). In addition the Brief Disability Questionnaire (BDQ), the Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire (Q-LES-Q) and the Global Assessment Scale (GAS) were administered to assess outcome. They were also asked to check the List of Life Events (LLE) for the last six months. Results Our results can be summarised as follows: (1) quality of life was predicted by current subthreshold depressive symptoms; (2) the number of previous depressive episodes, current subthreshold depressive and manic symptoms predicted disability; (3) the number of previous depressive episodes and the duration of hospitalisation as well as current subthreshold depressive and manic symptoms predicted overall functioning; (4) the number and distress level of life events were correlated with suicidal symptoms. Conclusions Our findings suggest that outcome measures were correlated with subsyndromal disorder, the number of previous depressive episodes and the duration of hospitalisation. Accepted: 2 October 2001     

Predictors of components of expressed emotion in major caregivers of Turkish patients with schizophrenia

Background Expressed emotion (EE) is a concept reflecting the emotional atmosphere of the home environment. Specific components of EE, namely criticism, hostility and emotional over-involvement, have been found to be important predictors of relapse for schizophrenic patients. The main aim of this study was to examine the predictive power of patient and caregiver characteristics and caregivers' perceptions of frequency, coping, distress/discomfort, control of symptom behaviours by the patient, and attributions on locus of causality for the development of the illness on two components of EE (criticism/hostility and emotional over-involvement) in a sample of major caregivers of Turkish schizophrenic patients. Methods Seventy-two caregivers of schizophrenic patients were administered a set of questionnaires tapping socio-demographic and illness-related variables, the family questionnaire tapping perceived frequency, distress/discomfort, coping and control of symptom behaviours, causal attributions for illness and, finally, the Expressed Emotion Scale in the hospital setting. Results The results showed that caregivers' perceptions of coping with specific symptom behaviours decreased criticism/hostility (C/H), whereas perceptions of higher frequency of symptom behaviours increased C/H. For emotional over-involvement (EOI), the number of individuals living in the household, being the mother, father or the spouse, perceptions of coping with symptom behaviours and reported distress/discomfort about symptom behaviours were significant predictors. Conclusions Caregivers' perceptions of their ability to cope with symptom behaviours and their reported distress due to these behaviours are important variables related to components of EE and need to be targets in intervention studies. The cultural and clinical implications of the results for the management of schizophrenia and for support for the caregivers are discussed. Accepted: 26 September 2001     

Cognitive functions and psychopathological symptoms in early-onset schizophrenia

Type and extent of objectively tested cognitive impairments (attention, verbal fluency, nonverbal reasoning) and their association with self-ratings (Paranoia Depression Scale; Frankfurt Complaint Questionnaire) and clinical assessments (Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, Scales for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms and Negative Symptoms) of psychopathological symptoms were studied in a sample of 74 adolescents primarily suffering from chronic schizophrenia (DSM-III-R; mean duration of illness = 3.4 years), including 15 patients with a very early onset (<14 years). Special consideration was given to the differentiation between positive and negative symptoms. In cross-sectional analyses, the schizophrenic adolescents were remarkably impaired in both cognitive functions (attention, reasoning) and psychopathological measures (BPRS, SANS, SAPS). However, factor analysis yielded orthogonal factors for cognitive and psychopathological parameters, and canonical correlation analyses did not find a significant correlation between these two areas. As the degree of objectively measured cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenic adolescents cannot be predicted by the severity of individual psychopathological symptoms, a multidimensional evaluation of the symptomatology seems to be appropriate. Moreover, premorbid disturbances (motor and/or language developmental disorders) and onset characteristics (age, pattern, subdiagnosis), and their relationship to cognitive impairments were investigated. Premorbid disturbances were confirmed as risk factors for the subsequent occurrence of cognitive impairments. Accepted: 23 August 1999     

精神分裂症患者的生活质量——缓解期偏执型精神分裂症患者生活质量调查

目的：调查缓解期偏执型精神分裂症患者的生活质量。方法：采用生活质量综合评定问卷（CQOLI-74）、简明精神病评定量表（BPRS）和治疗中出现的症状量表（TESS）了解患者的生活质量、精神状态、药物不良反应对生活质量的影响。结果：患者组的生活质量总分、躯体功能、心理功能、社会功能明显低于对照组，并涉及到心身健康的多个方面。BPRS分与生活质量呈负相关。结论：缓解期偏执型精神分裂症患者的生活质量明显低于正常人群。     

奎硫平与奥氮平对精神分裂症患者生活质量的影响

目的：观察奎硫平与奥氮平对精神分裂症患者生活质量的影响。方法：60例精神分裂症患者随机分为奎硫平组和奥氮平组,各30例。分别给予奎硫平和奥氮平治疗12周。采用阳性与阴性症状量表（PANSS）、生活质量综合评定问卷（GQOLI）及治疗中出现的症状量表（TESS）评定疗效及不良反应。结果：治疗后两组PANSS总分均明显下降（P〈0.01）;奎硫平组GQOLI总分及躯体健康维度中的躯体不适感、食与性功能、运动与感觉因子分均较治疗前显著增高（P均〈0.01）,与奥氮平组比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0.01）。两组TESS评分以奎硫平组（3.1±1.7）分明显低于奥氮平组（8.1±3.9）分（P〈0.01）。结论：奎硫平治疗精神分裂症疗效与奥氮平相仿,但更能提高患者的生活质量。     

How the inner world is reflected in relation to perceived ward atmosphere among patients with psychosis

Background: This study focused on how cognitive ability, personality traits, self-rated psychiatric symptoms, and social functioning were related to the way in which patients with psychosis perceived supportive aspects of the ward atmosphere. Methods: Patients at a psychiatric rehabilitation unit (PRU) in southern Sweden completed a ward atmosphere questionnaire (COPES), rated their psychiatric symptoms (SCL-90), self-image (SASB), and were tested on cognitive functioning (WAIS-R) and global social functioning (GAF). They were diagnosed according to ICD-10. Data were analysed by means of logistic regression analyses. Results: Self-monitoring and restraining (self-control), one cluster in the SASB, was the strongest factor associated with how the patients perceived the ward atmosphere. A perceived high level of self-control indicated high levels of perceived Support, Practical orientation, and Order and organisation of the ward atmosphere. A high level of self-rated paranoid symptoms (SCL-90) increased the risk of perceiving a high level of Anger and aggression and a low level of Program clarity. Regarding cognitive ability (WAIS-R), two factors were important for predicting perceived ward atmosphere. A low level of social competence was associated with a low level of perceived Order and organisation. Furthermore, a low level of abstract thinking was related to a low level of perceived Anger and aggression, while a high level of abstract thinking was associated with a low level of Program clarity. Patients with schizophrenia exhibited a lower level of Self-monitoring and restraining than patients with other psychoses. Conclusion: The results from this study indicate that individual factors such as self-control, paranoid symptoms and social competence may be important for how the ward atmosphere is perceived. This is important knowledge when monitoring the ward atmosphere to better fit a unit's target group. Accepted: 18 June 2002 Correspondence to Jan-?ke Jansson, M.Sc.     

阿立哌唑合并氯氮平对精神分裂症患者生活质量的影响

目的:探讨阿立哌唑合并氯氮平对精神分裂症患者生活质量的影响. 方法:将78例经急性期治疗达临床痊愈及显著进步的复发性精神分裂症患者按治疗方案分为研究组(38例)和对照组(40例),分别给予阿立哌唑合并低剂量氯氮平及氯氮平单药维持治疗.分别在维持治疗前、6及12个月时采用生活质量综合评定问卷(GQOLl-74)对两组患者生活质量进行评定和比较. 结果:维持治疗6及12个月时,两组GQOLl-74总分较维持治疗前显著提高,且研究组更显著(P＜0.01或P＜0.001);研究组的躯体功能、社会功能维度评分以及心理功能维度中自尊评分明显高于对照组(P ＜0.05或P＜0.01). 结论:阿立哌唑合并低剂量氯氮平维持治疗的精神分裂症患者生活质量优于单用氯氮平.