Streptococcus pyogenes meningitis: report of a case and review of the literature

Streptococcus pyogenes is a very uncommon cause of bacterial meningitis beyond the neonatal period. A case report and a review of the recent literature is presented. We report on a previously healthy 7-year-old boy who developed S. pyogenes meningitis following a 2-day history of otitis media. A CT scan revealed right-sided mastoiditis as a possible focus of infection. The patient was treated with penicillin G for 14 days. The clinical course was uneventful, and he recovered without sequelae. By means of the polymerase chain reaction, the presence of streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin (SPE) B and SPE C, but not SPE A genes was discovered from the bacterial DNA. Conclusion Streptococcus pyogenes is a rare cause of bacterial meningitis but has to be considered as the causative pathogen beyond the neonatal period. Received: 17 May 1999 / Accepted: 4 January 2000     

Late and ultra late onset Streptococcus B meningitis: clinical and bacteriological data over 6 years in France

Background:  Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is one of the leading causes of sepsis and meningitis in newborn. The objective of this study was to describe the characteristics of GBS meningitis in children aged between 7 and 89 days (late onset disease – LOD group) and to compare them with children aged more than 3 months (ultra late onset disease – ULOD group).
Methods: Clinical and biological data were gathered by ACTIV/GPIP (a nationwide active surveillance network). The study population included 242 children hospitalized between 2001 and 2006 for GBS meningitis (220 in the LOD group and 22 in the ULOD group).
Results:  Univariate analysis revealed that gestational age (GA) was significantly lower in the ULOD group as compared with the LOD group (respectively 35.6 weeks vs. 37.9 weeks, p = 0.002). Prevalence of early preterm birth (before the 32nd week GA) was significantly higher in the ULOD group than in the LOD group (32% vs. 7%, p = 0.002). No significant difference was found between the two groups for biological characteristics of lumbar puncture, GBS serotypes, complications and survival rate.
Conclusion: These data suggest that LOD and ULOD would be the same clinical and bacteriological entity, except for prematurity, which seems significantly associated with ULOD.     

Early neonatal streptococcal infection

Objective To determine the incidence of early onset Group B Streptococcal (GBS) infection in infants born over a two year period and to determine the outcome of sepsis evaluation in infants born to mothers with GBS colonization. Methods The charts of infants born to mothers with GBS colonization were reviewed for details of sepsis evaluation and management. The microbiology records were used to identify proven cases of GBS septicemia and meningitis in neonates born during the study period. Results Out of a total of 4636 live births in 2 years, there was one infant with culture-proven GBS septicemia, an incidence of 0.2 per 1000 live births. During the study period 83 infants were born to mothers who were known to have GBS carriage at the time of delivery. 73 out of these 83 infants (88%) had sepsis evaluation and received empirical parenteral penicillin for at least 5 days. There were no cases of blood culture-proven GBS sepsis among these 83 infants. However, there were 2 cases of probable sepsis giving an attack rate of 2.4%. All the three infants with definite or probable sepsis were preterm; there were no deaths among these affected infants. Conclusion The overall incidence of early onset GBS sepsis was found to be low when compared to previous reported studies. The strategy of sepsis evaluation and management was found to be effective in preventing death and definite GBS septicemia in infants born to GBS colonized mothers.     

Neonatal group B streptococcal disease in Finland: a ten-year nationwide study.

BACKGROUND: Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is the most common cause of invasive infections in newborns. GBS bacteria are typed on the basis of capsular polysaccharides or surface-localized proteins. Both polysaccharides and protein antigens have been suggested as potential vaccine candidates. METHODS: A prospective nationwide laboratory-based study of invasive GBS infections in children younger than 3 months of age was conducted in 1985 through 1994. Isolates were serotyped by immunodiffusion in agar gel with HCl extracts and rabbit antisera. Clinical diagnoses and case fatalities were verified from the patient records or the national hospital discharge register. RESULTS: There were 485 cases registered during the 10-year period. The incidence of disease was 0.76/1000 live births. The case fatality rate was 8.0%. Of the 485 cases 398 (83%) were early onset and 87 (17%) late onset infections. The most common clinical diagnosis was bacteremia (77%) without an identified focus of infection. Other diagnoses included meningitis (17%), pneumonia (3%), osteomyelitis or septic arthritis (2%), pyelonephritis or cellulitis. Serotyping of 395 isolates revealed that 47% were of serotype III or III/R, 23% of Ia/c, 11% of Ib, 6% of II/R, 8% of IV, 1% of V and 7% were nontypable. CONCLUSIONS: The clinical picture of GBS disease and serotype distribution are similar to what has been reported from other countries. Serotypes III and III/R dominated (47% of all infections), especially in late onset disease. On the basis of these results a GBS vaccine including at least the Ia, Ib, II and III components would provide coverage against 88% of GBS serotypes causing neonatal disease in Finland.     

Group B Streptococcus late-onset disease presenting as cellulitis-adenitis syndrome

Cellulitis-adenitis syndrome is a rare clinical manifestation of group B Streptococcus (GBS) late-onset disease. Its significance lies in the fact that local infection may be the only initial sign of systemic infection that is often concurrent with meningitis. Soft tissue involvement (cellulitis-adenitis) can sometimes be the only initial manifestation of GBS infection. We report four cases of GBS cellulitis-adenitis syndrome from different hospitals in Barcelona and Tarragona. We emphasize that early diagnosis and treatment may improve the potentially poor prognosis of these patients, and stress the need to rule out central nervous system involvement by studying cerebrospinal fluid.     

新生儿B族链球菌感染预防策略的研究进展

B 族链球菌可引起新生儿早发型和晚发型疾病,主要危险因素是母亲胃肠道和生殖道的定植。目前对存在危险因素的妊娠妇女有两种筛选方案：高危因素评估方案和普遍筛查方案;美国等国家采取产时抗生素预防性治疗措施,使早发型B 族链球菌疾病的发病率大幅度降低,但对晚发型疾病的发病率影响不大。抗生素预防性治疗首选青霉素,对青霉素过敏者需依据菌株药敏结果选择药物。抗生素预防性治疗措施存在一定的弊端,需积极研发其他的预防措施来预防B 族链球菌感染。     

Infektionen durch Gruppe-B-Streptokokken in der Neonatalperiode

Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus) is the leading cause of neonatal sepsis and meningitis.A current surveillance study in Germany indicates an incidence of 0.5 per 1000 live births. GBS early-onset sepsis presents with a fulminant clinical course within the first 24 h of life.Late-onset sepsis presents as meningitis with a delayed onset. Of the newborns with GBS sepsis 75% will recover uneventfully, while 6% die.The pathophysiology of GBS sepsis has become better understood in recent years.Pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune system recognize cell wall components and proteins released from GBS, which results in a proinflammatory cytokine response leading to septic shock.Prevention of neonatal GBS infection both in a screening and a risk-based approach of maternal antimicrobial prophylaxis have reduced the rate of cultureproven invasive disease.This strategy raises considerable concern since antibiotic resistance is increasing worldwide.Furthermore, preterm delivery and late-onset sepsis due to GBS cannot be prevented. Since the incidence of GBS infections depends on the level of maternal serotype-specific antibodies, prevention strategies might be based on maternal immunization.Several advances in the development of conjugate vaccines have been accomplished.     

Streptococcus pneumoniae sepsis in the newborn

Background: Streptococcus pneumoniae (SP) is an uncommon cause of neonatal sepsis. Aims: To report on the spectrum of morbidity associated with SP infections in the neonatal period. Methods: A case series of SP infection in the neonatal period was studied. Maternal and neonatal outcomes were noted. Results: Four cases of neonatal SP infection are reported, one of which was due to a strain with reduced susceptibility to penicillin. All four cases had very early onset of severe clinical disease with bacteremia and pneumonia. In one case a retrospective diagnosis of meningitis was made as well. Maternal illness was a feature in one of these infants. Conclusions: Although less common now than in the pre‐antibiotic era, Streptococcus pneumoniae remains a rare but important cause of neonatal sepsis and can mimic early onset Group B streptococcal sepsis. It is unclear whether current infant or adult pneumococcal immunisation programs might influence its incidence in the neonatal period. The potential for strains with reduced susceptibility to β‐lactam antibiotics to cause neonatal infection needs to be considered in relevant settings.     

Current status and clinical presentations of invasive neonatal Group B streptococcal infections in Korea

Background: Group B streptococcus (GBS) is the most common cause of invasive neonatal infections in developed countries. The incidence of early‐onset GBS disease in Korea is known to be much lower than that in other developed countries; however neonatal GBS disease has been frequently reported in recent years in Korea. This retrospective study sought to determine the current status and clinical presentation of neonatal GBS disease in Korea. Methods: From January 1996 through December 2005, GBS cases (n= 157) diagnosed in blood, cerebrospinal fluid, or other sterile body fluids among infants <3 months of age from 14 university hospitals in Korea were identified. Age of onset, diagnosis, underlying medical conditions, and outcomes were investigated by reviewing the medical records. Results: A total of 157 cases were identified during the study period. Of the cases, 32 were early‐onset disease (EOD) and 125 were late‐onset disease (LOD). Twenty‐six of the EOD cases had symptoms during the first 24 h after birth. One hundred of the 157 GBS cases were diagnosed as meningitis. The mortality rate of EOD was 20.7%. The case fatality rate of LOD was 7.2% and 25.2% of LOD cases had sequelae. Conclusions: GBS is becoming an important cause of invasive neonatal infections in Korea, with LOD being more common. It may not be currently necessary to adopt the prevention guidelines of perinatal GBS disease in Korea. However, studies of maternal GBS carriage rates and neonatal GBS disease will continue.     

肺炎链球菌的感染与免疫研究进展

肺炎链球菌是儿童侵袭性细菌感染的主要病原菌,可以引起肺炎、脑膜炎和脓毒症等危及生命的疾病。作为上呼吸道常见定植菌,了解其感染过程中机体的免疫反应对于疾病的治疗至关重要。该文综述肺炎链球菌抗原结构、肺炎链球菌结合疫苗及主要毒力因子,并重点描述肺炎链球菌感染后机体的免疫反应,包括固有免疫、巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞和T细胞的作用。     

Recurrent neonatal group B streptococcal disease associated with infected breast milk

Group B streptococcus (GBS) is a major cause of severe systemic infections among the newborn. Both recurrent and maternal mastitis-associated, group B streptococcus diseases are uncommon. Persistence of GBS colonization of infants' mucous membrane is postulated to influence the pathogeneses of recurrent GBS infection. The authors describe a term infant who was treated for GBS sepsis and meningitis and then later developed recurrent GBS sepsis, without meningitis, due to feeding of infected breast milk. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction assay was performed to demonstrate that the GBS isolates from the first and second episode of infection and the maternal milk are identical. The authors conclude that transmission of GBS through breast milk should be considered in cases of recurrent neonatal GBS infection and bacterial culture of breast milk should be routinely performed in such cases.     

Group B streptococcal infection with 2 recurrences in a newborn]

Group B III streptococcus (GBS) is a predominant pathogen in neonates in France. Relapse is rare and two successive relapses are exceptional: only three cases have been yet reported. CASE REPORT: A newborn infant of 18 days of age presented a first episode of invasive group B III streptococcal infection with meningitis and ventriculitis. At 53 days of age, a second episode with bacteriemia and parotidis appeared. At 63 days of age, she presented a third episode with meningitis. Genome analysis of the three bacterial strains isolated during the three episodes showed the same clonal origin. COMMENTS: We discuss the incidence of the treatment, the eventual presence of a penicillin-tolerant GBS, the possible relapse or recurrence of the pathogen and the role of the relative immunodeficiency in infant.     

Vaccines to prevent neonatal GBS infection

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) remains the leading bacterial cause of neonatal sepsis and meningitis in the United States. Although antibiotic prophylaxis has decreased the infection rate, the best long-term solution lies in the development of effective vaccines. The GBS capsular polysaccharide (CPS) is a major target of antibody-mediated immunity. While antibody to CPS is protective, uncoupled CPS is variably immunogenic in humans, a finding that led to the development of GBS CPS-protein conjugate vaccines. GBS CPS-protein conjugate vaccines of all clinically important serotypes have been produced and tested in animals. Mice and baboons immunized with CPS conjugates transplacentally transferred functionally active GBS-specific IgG to their offspring. Phase 1 and phase 2 clinical trials have shown that GBS conjugate vaccines are safe, well-tolerated and immunogenic in healthy adults. Moreover, human antibodies elicited by the conjugate vaccines are functionally active both in vitro and in animal models of invasive GBS disease.     

The changing spectrum of group B streptococcal disease in infants: an eleven-year experience in a tertiary care hospital.

Risk factors, clinical syndromes and the case-fatality rates associated with Group B Streptococcus (GBS) infections in infants managed at the University of Rochester Medical Center during 1979 to 1989 were reviewed. Overall 92 episodes of early onset disease (EOD) and 54 of late onset disease (LOD) were diagnosed in 143 infants (3 infants with EOD presented later with LOD). About one-third of patients with EOD and controls were non-white compared with two-thirds of patients with LOD that occurred in racial minority groups. Prematurity and low birth weight were significantly more common in patients with invasive GBS disease than in controls. Eighty-three of 92 (90%) cases of EOD were detected during the first day of life and 10 of 54 (19%) cases of LOD occurred in infants older than 3 months of age. At the time of diagnosis 4% of infants with EOD were asymptomatic, 54% had respiratory disease, 27% had sepsis without a focus, 15% had meningitis and 1% had urinary tract infection or omphalitis. Among infants with LOD 46% had sepsis, 37% meningitis, 7% urinary tract infection, 6% osteomyelitis and/or septic arthritis and 4% cellulitis or pneumonia. Leukopenia and shift to the left were observed in 43 and 61% of episodes of EOD and in 28 and 57% of episodes of LOD, respectively. All infants were promptly treated with antibiotics and vigorous supportive therapy. The case-fatality rate was 13% in EOD and 0 in LOD.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Group B <Emphasis Type="Italic">Streptococcus</Emphasis> causes severe sepsis in term neonates: 8 years experience of a major Chinese neonatal unit

Background:In contrast to industrialized countries,the clinical characteristics of neonatal sepsis caused by Group B Streptococcus (GBS) are largely unexplored in China.Methods:A retrospective case series study was performed at a high-capacity neonatal unit in Shanghai,China from January 2008 to December 2015.Clinical characteristics of neonates with culture-proven GBS sepsis and antibiotic susceptibility of isolated strains were analyzed.Results:Forty-three term neonates were included during the study period.The majority (74.4％) had early-onset sepsis with symptoms of respiratory distress.Meningitis was significantly more common in lateonset sepsis than in early-onset sepsis (81.5％ vs.18.8％,P＜0.0001).Approximately one third of all patients (n=16)developed severe sepsis,defined as sepsis with organ dysfunctions,and respiratory dysfunction/failure was the most common (32.6％).The in-hospital mortality rate of GBS sepsis was 4.7％.Neonates who progressed to severe sepsis had significantly lower pH level at the onset of symptoms than those who did not (7.26±0.12 vs.7.39±0.05,P=-0.006).Treatment of severe GBS sepsis required lots of medical resources including extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.All tested GBS strains were susceptible to penicillin,but the rate of resistance to clindamycin (84.0％) and erythromycin (88.0％) was high.Conclusions:GBS as a pathogen for neonatal sepsis has been receiving little attention in China.Our data demonstrated that GBS sepsis was likely to be fulminant.Early recognition followed by antibiotics and adequate supportive therapies was critical for successful treatment.Chinese clinicians should be aware of GBS infection when treating neonatal sepsis,especially in the absence of universal maternal GBS screening.     

Streptococcus pneumoniae invasive disease in the neonatal period: An increasing problem?

Abstract A series of 11 cases of invasive infection withStreptococcus pneumoniae, occurring over an 11-year period, is reported. Eight of the 11 cases occurred during the final 2 years of the study suggesting that the incidence of infection may be increasing. Infection carries a high mortality (3/11). Morbidity includes meningitis, convulsions and respiratory failure. In one caseS. pneumoniae meningitis occurred in both mother and newborn. Most mothers and newborn. Most mothers who carried the organism were asymptomatic at the time of delivery.Conclusion S. pneumoniae should be specifically sought in swabs taken from the pregnant mother and newborn and if isolated, even in the absence of symptoms, antibiotic therapy against the organism should be strongly considered.     

Group B Streptococcal Meningitis in Infants Beyond the Neonatal Period

Objectives

To describe the clinico-bacteriological profile, and early outcomes of infants diagnosed with Group B streptococcus (GBS) meningitis.

Methods

This was a retrospective review of infants (aged 1 mo to 2 y) diagnosed with GBS meningitis in a tertiary care hospital in New Delhi from October 2010 through January 2012. The clinico-bacteriological data and early outcomes of infants with suspected bacterial meningitis and a positive CSF latex agglutination test for GBS were studied. The CSF samples were subjected to PCR for broad spectrum 16s ribosomal DNA and the GBS species specific gene, the scpB.

Results

Twenty seven patients (13 boys, and 14 girls) were diagnosed with GBS meningitis during the study period. Broad spectrum 16s ribosomal DNA PCR was performed on 18 of the 27 CSF samples. Sixteen were positive. All these 16 were also positive for the species specific scpB gene. The median duration of hospital stay was 7 d (range 1–72 d). Nine patients died. One patient each developed ventriculitis, optic atrophy and hydrocephalus. Overall, 12 patients had a complete recovery at discharge.

Conclusions

GBS must be considered in the etiology of bacterial meningitis in Indian infants.     

Dexamethasone effects on group B streptococcal infection in newborn rats

BACKGROUND: We previously published that human neutrophil-mediated bacterial killing of group B Streptococcus (GBS) in vitro was dependent on the timing and concentration of dexamethasone exposure. HYPOTHESIS: Dexamethasone treatment would affect neutrophil mediated killing of GBS in an animal model. METHODS: Wistar rat pups were randomly allocated to receive placebo or dexamethasone before, early or late after GBS infection. Suckling rats were infected with 104 or 105 colony-forming units of GBS or nothing. Pups were followed for survival, quantitative bacteremia, growth and neutrophil-mediated bacterial killing. Neutrophils for bacterial killing were obtained via cardiac puncture before infection. Statistics included chi square for survival, Mann-Whitney U test for bacteremia, analysis of variance for growth and paired Student's t test for bacterial killing analyses. RESULTS: Dexamethasone treatment before invasive GBS infection decreases quantitative bacteremia, improves survival and improves neonatal neutrophil-mediated bacterial killing in suckling rats, whereas dexamethasone treatment after infection increases bacteremia and decreases survival. Regardless of timing of dexamethasone treatment, before or after invasive GBS infection, growth was significantly impaired in all suckling rats receiving dexamethasone compared with controls. CONCLUSION: Treatment with dexamethasone before invasive GBS infection improves survival and decreases bacteremia in suckling rats; this appears in part to be mediated by improved neonatal neutrophil-mediated bacterial killing. We speculate that this improvement in outcome may be a result of improved number or function of neutrophil cell surface receptors.     

Invasive pneumococcal infection in children, 1981-92: A hospital-based study

Objective: To document the pattern and sequelae of invasive pneumococcal infection in hospitalized children.
Methodology Retrospective review of Streptococcus pneumoniae (Sp) isolates from normally sterile sites from 1981 to 1992 at three paediatric centres in Sydney for demographic data, spectrum of disease, predisposing conditions, mortality, and sequelae from meningitis.
Results: Four hundred and thirty-one episodes in 417 patients were identified. Foci of infection were: meningitis, 34%; pneumonia, 29%; bacteraemia without apparent focus, 30%; and other foci, 7%. Sixty-one per cent of all cases and 64% of cases with meningitis were less than 2 years old. Predisposing conditions were present in 37%, were significantly more common in patients over age 2 years and were more common with foci other than meningitis. Overall mortality was 6.6% whereas the mortality for those with meningitis was 8%. Neurological sequelae were identified in 34% of previously normal children, and severe hearing loss occurred in 11.5%.
Conclusions The high morbidity and mortality from invasive pneumococcal infection in children justifies further evaluation of preventive strategies.     

Uncommon clinical presentation of a common bug: Group A Streptococcus meningitis

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a common pathogen in paediatric infections. However, it is a rare etiologic agent of bacterial meningitis. We describe a case of Streptococcus pyogenes meningitis complicated by sensorineural hearing loss in an immunocompetent 7-year-old boy. Clinicians should be aware of GAS as a potential cause of paediatric meningitis, especially with prominent symptoms suggestive of frontal sinusitis. Meningitis caused by GAS has been shown to be associated with significant mortality and morbidity, including neurological complications. Early screening for sensorineural hearing loss in patients with GAS meningitis can facilitate timely cochlear implant.