Reevaluation of waterborne releases of radioactive materials from the Mayak Production Association into the Techa River in 1949-1951

The Mayak Production Association was the first site for the production of weapons-grade plutonium in Russia. Early operations led to the waterborne release of radioactive materials into the small Techa River. Residents living downstream used river water for drinking and other purposes. The releases and subsequent flooding resulted in deposition of sediments along the shoreline and on floodplain soil. Primary routes of exposure were external dose from the deposited sediments and ingestion of 90Sr and other radionuclides. Study of the Techa River Cohort has revealed an increased incidence of leukemia and solid cancers. Epidemiologic studies are supported by extensive dose-reconstruction activities that have led to various versions of a Techa River Dosimetry System (TRDS). The correctness of the TRDS has been challenged by the allegation that releases of short-lived radionuclides were much larger than those used in the TRDS. Although the dosimetry system depends more upon measurements of 90Sr in humans and additional measurements of radionuclides and of exposure rates in the environment, a major activity has been undertaken to define more precisely the time-dependent rates of release and their radionuclide composition. The major releases occurred during 1950-1951 in the form of routine releases and major accidental releases. The reevaluated amount of total release is 114 PBq, about half of which was from accidents that occurred in late 1951. The time-dependent composition of the radionuclides released has also been reevaluated. The improved understanding presented in this paper is possible because of access to many documents not previously available.     

Radioecological impacts of the Techa River contamination

During the years 1949-1952, the Mayak Production Association (MAYAK), which was processing weapons-grade plutonium, was discharging radioactive wastes into the Techa River. As a result, all components of the river system (water, bottom soils, and flood plains) were exposed to massive radioactive contamination. The protective measures taken in the 1950's resulted in the improvement of the radioecological conditions in the Techa River. After 1952, the radioecological conditions in the area were mostly determined by the long-lived radionuclides 9OSr and 137Cs. This article focuses on the dependencies governing the migration of radionuclides along the vertical and horizontal planes in different components of the river system over a 40-y period. Until the 1990's, a decrease in 90Sr and 137Cs contents was noted in environmental samples and foodstuffs produced in riverside villages. In the subsequent years, the radioecological situation on the Techa stabilized. The sources of the current contamination of the river are represented by the runoffs from by-pass canals and swampy upper reaches.     

Status of ecosystems in radioactive waste reservoirs of the Mayak Production Association in 2009

Liquid radioactive waste from the Mayak Production Association (Chelyabinsk Region, Russia) is contained in industrial reservoirs (R-11, R-10, R-4, R-17, and R-9) that have different levels of radioactive contamination, increased from R-11 to R-17. A study of the ecosystems in these reservoirs was performed in 2009 to determine if there was any association with the level of contamination. No significant change in the status of biota was found in the reservoir with the lowest radionuclide concentrations (R-11) in comparison to other reservoirs in the region with a similar geography that are unaffected by radioactive contamination. In reservoir R-10, changes in the zoobenthos indices were registered. In reservoir R-4, changes in the zoobenthos and zooplankton communities were registered. In reservoir R-17, there was no ichthyofauna, but strong changes in the phytoplankton, zooplankton, and zoobenthos communities were registered. In reservoir R-9, under the conditions of the heaviest radioactive contamination of water ecosystems in the biosphere, there was no ichthyofauna, and phytoplankton and zooplankton consisted of almost a monoculture of cyanobacteriae and rotifers.     

Assessment of current exposure of the population living in the Techa River basin from radioactive releases of the Mayak facility

Current doses arising from external and internal pathways have been estimated for the residents of two villages, Muslumovo and Brodokalmak, alongside the Techa River, which was contaminated by radioactive releases from the Mayak production facility. The dose estimates are based on numerous environmental measurements supplemented by further human whole body measurements and studies on occupational and dietary habits of Slavic and Turkish ethnic groups. Estimated doses arise mainly from use of the contaminated floodplains alongside the Techa River. The current average annual effective dose attributable to Cs and Sr in the environment, under conditions where restrictions on some river-related activities are in place, may exceed the Russian national action level of 1 mSv only in the hypothetical critical group of herdsmen in Muslumovo. The dose to this critical group in Brodokalmak is assessed to be 3 times less than that in Muslumovo and 2 fold below the action level. The external and internal exposures give comparable contributions to the total dose in both settlements and population groups: 47% and 53% in Muslumovo and 40% and 60% in Brodokalmak, respectively. About one quarter to one half of the internal dose in adults arises from the intake of Sr. In order to avoid substantial increases in the dose received by Muslumovo residents, it is expedient to prolong the current policy of restriction of some river-related population activities in this village.     

Development of an improved dosimetry system for the workers at the Mayak Production Association

Databases are being created that contain verified and updated dosimetry and worker history information for workers at the Mayak Production Association. Many workers had significant external and internal exposures, particularly during the early years (1948-1952) of operation. These dosimetric and worker history data are to be used in companion epidemiology studies of stochastic and deterministic effects. The database contains both external and internal dose information and is being constructed from other databases that include radiochemical analyses of tissues, bioassay data, air sampling data, whole body counting data, and occupational and worker histories. The procedures, models, methods, and operational uncertainties will be documented and included in the database, technical reports, and publications. The cohort of the stochastic epidemiological study is expected to include about 19,000 persons while the cohort for the deterministic epidemiological study is expected to include about 600 persons. For external dosimetry, workplace gamma, beta, and neutron doses are being reconstructed. The models used for this incorporate issues such as known isotopes, composition, shielding, further analysis of film badge sensitivities, and records of direct measurements. Organ doses from external exposures are also being calculated. Methods for calculating dose uncertainties are being developed. For internal dosimetry, the organ doses have been calculated using the established FIB-1 biokinetic model. A new biokinetic model is being developed that includes more information of the solubility and biokinetics of the different chemical forms and particulate sizes of plutonium that were in the workplace. In addition, updated worker histories will be used to estimate doses to some workers where direct measurements were not made. A rigorous quality control procedure is being implemented to ensure that the correct dosimetry data is entering the various databases being used by the epidemiologists.     

Simple model for the reconstruction of radionuclide concentrations and radiation exposures along the Techa River

The Techa River (Southern Urals, Russia) was contaminated in 1949-1956 by liquid radioactive wastes from the Mayak complex, the first Russian facility for the production of plutonium. The measurements of environmental contamination were started in 1951. A simple model describing radionuclide transport along the free-flowing river and the accumulation of radionuclides by bottom sediments is presented. This model successfully correlates the rates of radionuclide releases as reconstructed by the Mayak experts, hydrological data, and available environmental monitoring data for the early period of contamination (1949-1951). The model was developed to reconstruct doses for people who lived in the riverside communities during the period of the releases and who were chronically exposed to external and internal irradiation. The model fills the data gaps and permits reconstruction of external gamma-exposure rates in air on the river bank and radionuclide concentrations in river water used for drinking and other household needs in 1949-1951.     

Uncertainties analysis of doses resulting from chronic inhalation of plutonium at the Mayak production association

A method is presented to determine the uncertainties in the reported dose due to incorporated plutonium for the Mayak Worker Cohort. The methodology includes errors generated by both detection methods and modeling methods. To accomplish the task, the method includes classical statistics, Monte Carlo, perturbation, and reliability groupings. Uncertainties are reported in percent of reported dose as a function of total body burden. The cohort was initially sorted into six reliability groups, with "A" being the data set that the investigators are most confident is correct and "G" being the data set with the most ambiguous data. Categories were adjusted based on preliminary calculation of uncertainties using the sorting criteria. Specifically, the impact of transportability (the parameter used to describe the transport of plutonium from the lung to systemic organs) was underestimated, and the structure of the sort was reorganized to reflect the impact of transportability. The finalized categories are designated with Roman numerals I through V, with "I" being the most reliable. Excluding Category V (neither bioassay nor autopsy), the highest uncertainty in lung doses is for individuals from Category IV-which ranged from 90-375% for total body burdens greater than 10 Bq, along with work histories that indicated exposure to more than one transportability class. The smallest estimated uncertainties for lung doses were determined by autopsy. Category I has a 32-38% uncertainty in the lung dose for total body burdens greater than 1 Bq. First, these results provide a further definition and characterization of the cohort and, second, they provide uncertainty estimates for these plutonium exposure categories.     

Extrapulmonary organ distribution of plutonium in healthy workers exposed by chronic inhalation at the Mayak production association

The systemic distribution of plutonium was determined for "healthy" workers who chronically inhaled plutonium at the radiochemical plants of the Mayak Production Association. The data were obtained by radiochemical analysis of soft tissues and bones samples collected upon autopsy of 120 workers who died from acute coronary diseases and accidents. The soft tissue samples were wet-ashed using nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. Bone samples were ashed in a muffle furnace at 500 degrees C. Plutonium was extracted on anionite and coprecipitated with bismuth phosphate. The precipitation was blended with ZnS powder, and the alpha-activity was measured by ZnS solid scintillation counting in a low-background alpha radiometer. Twenty-five years after the beginning of inhalation exposures, the average percentage of plutonium in the skeleton and liver was 50% and 42% of systemic burden, respectively. A multivariate regression was used to quantify the effects of exposure time, "transportability" of the various compounds, plutonium body content, and age on systemic plutonium distribution. The early retention of plutonium in the liver is assumed to be greater than that in the skeleton. The initial distribution of plutonium between the liver and the skeleton, immediately after entering the circulatory system, was 50:38%, respectively. With time, the fraction of plutonium found in the liver decreased, while the fraction in the skeleton increased at a rate of 0.5% y(-1) of systemic deposition. Exposure time had a greater effect on the relative retention of plutonium in the main organs when compared to age. The statistical estimates that characterized the relative plutonium distribution were less stable for the liver than for the skeleton, likely due to the slower turnover of skeletal tissues and the retention of plutonium in bone.     

First international intercomparison of luminescence techniques using samples from the Techa River Valley.

Bricks collected from a contaminated village (Muslyumovo) of the lower Techa river valley, Southern Urals, Russia, were measured using thermoluminescence and optically stimulated luminescence by four European laboratories and a U.S. laboratory to establish and compare the applied dose reconstruction methodologies. The bricks, collected from 60-100-year-old buildings, had accumulated a relatively high dose due to natural sources of radiation in the brick and from the surrounding environment. This work represents the results of a first international intercomparison of luminescence measurements for bricks from the Southern Urals. The luminescence measurements of absorbed dose in bricks collected from the most shielded locations of the same buildings were used to determine the background dose due to natural sources of radiation and to validate the age of the bricks. The absorbed dose in different bricks measured by four laboratories using thermoluminescence and optically stimulated luminescence at a depth of 10 +/- 2.5 mm from the exposed brick surface agreed within +/-21%. After subtraction of the natural background dose, the absorbed dose in brick due to contaminated river sediments and banks was calculated and found to range between 150 and 200 mGy. The cumulative doses in brick due to man-made sources of radiation at 100 and 130 mm depths in the bricks were also measured and found to be consistent with depth dose profiles calculated by Monte Carlo simulations of photon transport for possible source distributions.     

废旧电器拆解地区水环境毒理学评价

目的 检测废旧电器拆解地野生鲫鱼肝脏酶学改变及水环境遗传毒性和雌激素活性.方法 以废旧电器拆解地LQ地区作为污染区,周围无电子拆解业的LY地区作为对照区,对两地区野生鲫鱼肝脏超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)、细胞色素P4501 A1活性及丙二醛(MDA)含量进行测定;同时,采用鼠伤寒沙门氏菌突变试验(Ames试验)和重组基因酵母试验,对两地区水样浓集物进行检测.结果 对照区和污染区鲫鱼肝脏P4501 A1酶活性分别为(2.75±1.18)和(9.76±3.03) nmol/g· min,污染区P4501 A1酶活性比对照区明显升高;污染区SOD活性[(23.34±4.12 )U/mg pro]明显低于对照区[(32.23±6.87) U/mg pro],GSH-Px活性和MDA含量在2个地区之间差异无统计学意义;污染区水样浓集物Ames试验结果阳性.重组基因酵母试验两地区水样浓集物各浓度均未显示出明显的雌激素活性.结论 废旧电器拆解地野生鲫鱼肝脏已发生酶学改变,水样浓集物呈现诱变性,未显示明显雌激素活性.     

Hybrid radioassay of multiple radionuclide mixtures in waste solutions by using liquid and NaI(Tl) scintillation monitors

A new analytical technique for radioactive waste solutions has been developed by using a combination of a liquid and a NaI(Tl) scintillation monitor, which enables beta-emitter mixtures to be radioassayed using one calculation process with the method of least squares. This hybrid system can facilitate the analysis of beta-emitter mixtures with very similar liquid scintillation pulse height distributions, such as 3H, 51Cr, and 125I. All that is required for the technique are sets of quench standards of the nuclides to be analyzed and calibration standards for the gamma-emitters. Detection limits for seven nuclides were estimated to be about 0.005 Bq mL(-1), which are sufficiently low compared with the values of authorized safety guidelines.     

Modifying effects of health status, physiological, and dosimetric factors on extrapulmonary organ distribution and excretion of inhaled plutonium in workers at the Mayak Production Association

This paper summarizes the systemic organ distribution of plutonium in workers exposed by chronic inhalation at the Mayak Production Association (MPA). Using results of radiochemical measurements in soft tissue and bone samples collected at autopsy of 853 autopsy cases, this paper provides data on the effects of various chronic diseases and malignant tumors as well as exposure time, age, sex, and body burden on systemic retention of plutonium in 22 extrapulmonary organs and on the urinary excretion rate of the nuclide. Some aspects of this work have been reported already. The results of present autopsy studies showed that liver pathology accompanied by strong fatty dystrophy of hepatocytes results in a significant relative decrease in the fraction of systemic plutonium in the liver and contravariant increase in the skeletal fraction. The average fractions of systemic plutonium in the liver and the skeleton of those MPA workers were 15% and 75%, respectively, in comparison with 47% and 45% in healthy individuals. Some of the plutonium also redistributed from the liver via blood to other systemic soft tissues. Plutonium not redistributed was excreted with urine. The results of multivariate regression analysis indicated some time-related and sex-related changes not connected with pathology for the liver and the skeleton retention fractions and excretion rate of plutonium. The current ICRP biokinetic models do not account for the influence of different pathological processes in the body on plutonium distribution in systemic organs and urinary excretion. This could have significant consequences for dosimetry calculations and risk estimations.     

一起中央厨房食品污染引起食品安全事故的调查

摘要:目的　了解一起食品安全事故发生的原因,为全面控制事件提供依据。方法　从现场卫生学、现场流行病学、询问调查、实验室检测结果进行描述。结果　事件为中央厨房擅自变更生产场所,未经许可自制卤蛋,因不洁操作导致沙门菌污染所致。结论　该事件提示中央厨房应引进更先进食品安全管理体系,才能有效降低食品安全风险。     

Relationship between soil contamination by toxic industrial waste and health of the population

The data concerning the effects of the stored toxic industrial wastes on the health of people living in the zone of wastes storing grounds, on their role in ambient air and drinking water contamination is presented. The importance of using low waste and wasteless technologies for the reduction of the amount of toxic wastes to be disinfected is shown using the examples from practice. Measures taken by the sanitary service of Ukraine aimed at environmental protection from contamination by toxic industrial wastes are presented.     

Electron paramagnetic resonance and fluorescence in situ hybridization-based investigations of individual doses for persons living at Metlino in the upper reaches of the Techa River

Waterborne releases to the Techa River from the Mayak Production Association in Russia during 1949-1956 resulted in significant doses to persons living downstream; the most contaminated village was Metlino, about 7 km from the site of release. Internal and external doses have been estimated for these residents using the Techa River Dosimetry System-2000 (TRDS-2000); the primary purpose is to support epidemiological studies of the members of the Extended Techa River Cohort. Efforts to validate the calculations of external and internal dose are considered essential. One validation study of the TRDS-2000 system has been performed by the comparison of calculated doses to quartz from bricks in old buildings at Metlino with those measured by luminescence dosimetry. Two additional methods of validation considered here are electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurements of teeth and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) measurements of chromosome translocations in circulating lymphocytes. For electron paramagnetic resonance, 36 measurements on 26 teeth from 16 donors from Metlino were made at the GSF-National Research Center for Environment and Health (16 measurements) and the Institute of Metal Physics (20 measurements); the correlation among measurements made at the two laboratories has been found to be 0.99. Background measurements were also made on 218 teeth (63 molars, 128 premolars, and 27 incisors). Fluorescence in situ hybridization measurements were made for 31 residents of Metlino. These measurements were handicapped by the analysis of a limited number of cells; for several individuals no stable translocations were observed. Fluorescence in situ hybridization measurements were also made for 39 individuals believed to be unexposed. The EPR- and FISH-based estimates agreed well for permanent residents of Metlino: 0.67 +/- 0.21 Gy and 0.48 +/- 0.18 Gy (mean +/- standard error of the mean), respectively. Results of the two experimental methods also agreed well with the estimates derived from the use of the TRDS-2000. For all persons investigated according to each technique, the EPR-measured dose to enamel was 0.55 +/- 0.17 Gy, and the TRDS-2000 prediction for the dose to enamel for these individuals is 0.55 +/- 0.07 Gy. The fluorescence in situ hybridization-based dose, 0.38 +/- 0.10 Gy, compared well to the TRDS-2000 prediction of external dose, 0.31 +/- 0.03 Gy, to red bone marrow for these persons. Validation of external doses at the remaining villages is an active area of investigation.