Prospective surveillance for primary bloodstream infections occurring in Canadian hemodialysis units.

OBJECTIVE: Bloodstream infections are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients receiving long-term hemodialysis. We wanted to determine the incidence of hemodialysis-related bloodstream infections in Canadian centers participating in the Canadian Nosocomial Infection Surveillance Program. METHODS: Prospective surveillance for hemodialysis-related bloodstream infections was performed in 11 centers during a 6-month period. Bloodstream infections were defined by published criteria. Hemodialysis denominators included the number of dialysis procedures, the number of patient-days on dialysis, and the frequencies of different types of vascular access. RESULTS: There were 184 bloodstream infections in 133,158 dialysis procedures (1.4 per 1,000) and 316,953 patient-days (0.6 per 1,000). Hemodialysis access through arteriovenous (AV) fistulae was associated with the lowest risk for bloodstream infection (0.2 per 1,000 dialysis procedures). The relative risk for infection was 2.5 with AV graft access, 15.5 with cuffed and tunneled central venous catheter (CVC) access, and 22.5 with uncuffed CVC access (P < .001). There was marked variation among the 11 centers in the means of vascular access used for hemodialysis. Significant variation in infection rates was observed among the centers when controlling for types of access. CONCLUSIONS: There was a hierarchy of risk of hemodialysis-related bloodstream infection according to type of vascular access. There was significant variation in the type of vascular access being used among the Canadian hemodialysis centers, and also variation in access-specific infection rates between centers.     

Outbreak of hemodialysis vascular access site infections related to malfunctioning permanent tunneled catheters: making the case for active infection surveillance.

OBJECTIVE: To describe an outbreak of infections with permanent cuffed hemodialysis catheters recognized through ongoing surveillance and related to a specific malfunctioning permanent catheter. DESIGN: The outbreak was suspected from the results of prospective infection surveillance and confirmed by a retrospective cohort study using medical records for patients receiving dialysis between April 1, 1999, and March 31, 2000. SETTING: Integrated network of six outpatient hemodialysis facilities in southern Idaho and eastern Oregon. PATIENTS: Outpatients receiving long-term hemodialysis. RESULTS: During the 18 months prior to the outbreak, the overall infection rate was 4.1 infections per 1,000 dialysis sessions with a catheter rate of 8.9 per 1,000 dialysis sessions. During the 7 months of the outbreak, the overall rate increased to 5.8 per 1,000 dialysis sessions, whereas the catheter rate increased to 18.1 per 1,000 dialysis sessions. Reports of malfunctioning "Brand A" catheters prompted discontinuation of their placement. A manufacturer recall occurred in April 2000. During the 14 months after the outbreak, the overall infection rate decreased to 3.3 per 1,000 dialysis sessions and the catheter rate to 10.8 per 1,000 dialysis sessions. A 12-month retrospective cohort study recognized 96 patients with an identifiable catheter brand and 48 infections. Of these, 27 (56%) occurred in patients with Brand A catheters. The relative risk for infection when compared with other catheter brands was 1.96 (95% confidence interval, 1.32 to 2.92; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Ongoing infection surveillance in hemodialysis facilities can identify specific device-related outbreaks of infections and promote interventions to reduce infectious complications and promote patient safety. Surveillance for vascular access site infections is recommended as a routine activity in hemodialysis facilities.     

维持性血液透析患者血管通路感染的调查与分析

目的 分析维持性血液透析患者血管通路感染的原因,为临床预防血管通路感染提供参考.方法 选取2009年1月—2011年1月医院血液透析室进行透析的170例患者,将其分为对照组和试验组各85例;对照组采用长期留置插管法,试验组患者采用动静脉内漏,观察两组患者血管通路感染的发生率和病原菌.结果 试验组发生血管通路感染率为29.41％,低于对照组的55.29％,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);共分离出123株病原菌,其中革兰阳性菌30株占24.39％,革兰阴性菌80株占65.04％,真菌13株占10.57％;对照组分离出82株病原菌,试验组分离出41株;感染患者经有效治疗后痊愈.结论 血管通路感染直接威胁血透患者的生命,为降低血管通路感染率,应正确认识及处理血管通路感染的危险因素,早期诊断并进行及时、合理的治疗.     

Retrospective analysis of catheter-related infections in a hemodialysis unit.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the incidence rates of catheter-related bloodstream infection associated with different vascular access methods in patients receiving hemodialysis. SETTING: Tertiary care public hospital in Western Australia. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of surveillance data collected by the hospital's infection control department. METHODS: The number of confirmed bloodstream infections for each type of vascular access was identified for the period from July 2002 through June 2003. The corresponding number of patient-days was determined to calculate the infection incidence rates. The serially correlated data were then analyzed using Poisson generalized estimating equations. RESULTS: A total of 32 confirmed bloodstream infections were identified. Infection rates, in number of infections per 1,000 patient-days, were as follows: 0.4 for native arteriovenous fistulae; 2.86 for synthetic arteriovenous grafts; 4.02 for permanent, tunneled, cuffed central venous catheters; and 20.2 for temporary, nontunneled, noncuffed central venous catheters. Compared with permanent catheters, the monthly infection rate associated with the temporary catheters was significantly higher (incident rate ratio [IRR], 5.025 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.532-16.484]; P=.008) and that of arteriovenous fistulae was significantly lower (IRR, 0.099 [95% CI, 0.030-0.324]; P=.001). The monthly infection rate for arteriovenous grafts was not significantly different from that for permanent central venous catheters (IRR, 0.702 [95% CI, 0.246-2.008]; P=.510). CONCLUSIONS: A hierarchy of infection risk associated with vascular access type is evident. Native arteriovenous fistulae should be recommended for all patients receiving chronic hemodialysis, to minimize infection.     

血液净化中心阴沟肠杆菌血流感染疑似暴发的调查与控制

目的对某三级医院肾病内科血液透析患者阴沟肠杆菌血流感染疑似暴发进行调查与控制,为临床防治提供参考。方法对2018年5月21日—6月6日该院肾病内科的血液透析患者进行流行病学调查,对医院空气、透析用水和透析液、透析材料、使用中消毒剂、医务人员手、物体表面、患者手及深静脉置管处皮肤等进行环境卫生学检测,针对感染原因进行分析和采取严格防控措施。结果 2018年5月21日—6月6日,共6例患者发生导管相关血流感染,血培养均检出阴沟肠杆菌,发病率为3.03‰(6/1 980)。环境卫生学监测共采集标本133份,其中空气、透析用水及透析液、一次性透析管路、使用中消毒剂采样标本检测均合格;医务人员手采样合格率为61.54%(8/13);物体表面采样合格率为80.28%(57/71),患者手及深静脉置管处皮肤采样6份,不合格1份;环境卫生学监测均未检出阴沟肠杆菌。危险因素分析结果表明,糖尿病、透析前需要溶栓的患者中心静脉导管相关阴沟肠杆菌血流感染的发生率高,差异有统计学意义(均P0.05)。6例感染患者住院治疗2周后血培养阴性,出院继续门诊血透治疗。血液净化中心连续观察2个月未再出现新发感染病例。结论血液净化中心需加强医务人员手卫生、环境清洁与消毒工作,切断外源性感染途径。加强血液透析患者血管导管置管部位及血糖的管理,透析前避免溶栓等措施可减少导管相关血流感染的发生。     

Vital Signs: Health Disparities in Hemodialysis-Associated Staphylococcus aureus Bloodstream Infections — United States, 2017–2020

IntroductionRacial and ethnic minorities are disproportionately affected by end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). ESKD patients on dialysis are at increased risk for Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infections, but racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities associated with this outcome are not well described.MethodsSurveillance data from the 2020 National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) and the 2017–2020 Emerging Infections Program (EIP) were used to describe bloodstream infections among patients on hemodialysis (hemodialysis patients) and were linked to population-based data sources (CDC/Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry [ATSDR] Social Vulnerability Index [SVI], United States Renal Data System [USRDS], and U.S. Census Bureau) to examine associations with race, ethnicity, and social determinants of health.ResultsIn 2020, 4,840 dialysis facilities reported 14,822 bloodstream infections to NHSN; 34.2% were attributable to S. aureus. Among seven EIP sites, the S. aureus bloodstream infection rate during 2017–2020 was 100 times higher among hemodialysis patients (4,248 of 100,000 person-years) than among adults not on hemodialysis (42 of 100,000 person-years). Unadjusted S. aureus bloodstream infection rates were highest among non-Hispanic Black or African American (Black) and Hispanic or Latino (Hispanic) hemodialysis patients. Vascular access via central venous catheter was strongly associated with S. aureus bloodstream infections (NHSN: adjusted rate ratio [aRR] = 6.2; 95% CI = 5.7–6.7 versus fistula; EIP: aRR = 4.3; 95% CI = 3.9–4.8 versus fistula or graft). Adjusting for EIP site of residence, sex, and vascular access type, S. aureus bloodstream infection risk in EIP was highest in Hispanic patients (aRR = 1.4; 95% CI = 1.2–1.7 versus non-Hispanic White [White] patients), and patients aged 18–49 years (aRR = 1.7; 95% CI = 1.5–1.9 versus patients aged ≥65 years). Areas with higher poverty levels, crowding, and lower education levels accounted for disproportionately higher proportions of hemodialysis-associated S. aureus bloodstream infections.Conclusions and implications for public health practiceDisparities exist in hemodialysis-associated S. aureus infections. Health care providers and public health professionals should prioritize prevention and optimized treatment of ESKD, identify and address barriers to lower-risk vascular access placement, and implement established best practices to prevent bloodstream infections.     

Reducing bloodstream infections in an outpatient hemodialysis center--New Jersey, 2008-2011

Patients undergoing hemodialysis are at risk for bloodstream infections (BSIs), and preventing these infections in this high-risk population is a national priority. During 2008, an estimated 37,000 BSIs related to central lines occurred among hemodialysis patients in the United States. This is almost as many as the estimated 41,000 central line-associated BSIs that occurred during 2009 among patients in critical-care units and wards of acute-care hospitals. In 2009, to decrease BSI incidence in a New Jersey outpatient hemodialysis center, a package of interventions was instituted, beginning with participation in a national collaborative BSI prevention program and augmented by a social and behavioral change process to enlist staff members in infection prevention. Rates of BSIs related to the patient's vascular access (i.e., access-related BSIs [ARBs]) were evaluated in the preintervention and postintervention periods. The incidence of all ARBs decreased from 2.04 per 100 patient-months preintervention to 0.75 (p=0.03) after initiating program interventions and to 0.24 (p<0.01) after adding a behavioral change intervention. Only one ARB occurred during the last 12 postintervention months. At this hemodialysis facility, participating in a collaborative prevention program along with implementation of a behavioral change strategy was associated with a large decrease in ARBs. Other outpatient hemodialysis facilities also might reduce ARBs by adopting similar approaches to prevention.     

An outbreak of bloodstream infections in an outpatient hemodialysis center.

OBJECTIVES: Investigate and control an increase in bloodstream infections (BSIs) in an outpatient hemodialysis center. PATIENTS AND DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study was conducted for patients receiving dialysis at the center from February 2000 to April 2001. A case-control study compared microbiological data for all BSIs that occurred during the study period with those for BSIs that occurred during a baseline period January 1999 to January 2000). BSI rates before and after a 1-month intervention (May 2001) were assessed. A case was defined as a new BSI during the study period. RESULTS: The outbreak was polymicrobial, with approximately 30 species. The baseline BSI rate was 0.7 per 100 patient-months. From February 2000 to April 2001, the BSI rate increased to 4.2 per 100 patient-months. Overall, 75% of the BSIs were associated with central venous catheters (CVCs), but CVC use did not fully explain the increase in BSIs. In January 2000, when the center changed ownership, prepackaged CVC dressing kits and biweekly infection control monitoring were discontinued. Beginning in May 2001, staff were educated on CVC care, chlorhexidine replaced povidone-iodine for cutaneous antisepsis, gauze replaced transparent dressings, antimicrobial ointments containing polyethylene glycol at CVC exit sites were discontinued, and patients with CVCs were educated on cutaneous hygiene. After the intervention period, by October 2001, rates decreased to less than 1 BSI per 100 patient-months. CONCLUSIONS: Proper cutaneous antisepsis and access site care is crucial in preventing BSIs in patients receiving hemodialysis. Infection control programs, staff and patient education, and use of optimal antisepsis agents or prepackaged kits are useful toward this end.     

带涤纶套半永久血透导管在血液透析中的应用分析

目的：分析和探讨带涤纶套半永久血透导管在血液透析中临床研究及应用。方法：对2011年5月-2013年5月收治的40例尿毒症患者通过建立皮下隧道及Seldinger 技术留置带涤纶套血透导管进行维持性血液透析,观察其置管使用时间及并发症等情况。结果：患者带涤纶套半永久血透导管留置时间最短者4个月,最长者超过2年且至今仍在用,平均18.5个月。与临时导管比较,血流量、尿素清除指数（KT/V）方面比较差异均无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;但带涤纶套半永久血透导管出现感染、血栓形成、脱管等并发症情况更低、使用时间更长（P〈0.05）。结论：带涤纶套半永久血透导管对于血管条件差、无法建立内瘘,尤其在条件有限基层医院的透析患者提供一条可行的长期血管通路,确保透析继续顺利进行具有重要意义。     

Surveillance system of hemodialysis-associated infections in a pediatric unit

The bloodstream infection surveillance system proposed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) was prospectively conducted in a pediatric hemodialysis unit. Thirty patients were included; 73% had a catheter for vascular access at enrollment. Vascular access infection rate was 21.1 per 100 patient-months, well above those observed in adult patient surveys. Staphylococcus aureus was most frequently isolated (23%).     

带涤纶套隧道双腔深静脉导管为血液透析通路的临床研究

目的:探讨以带涤纶套隧道双腔静脉导管(TCC)为血管通路患者的透析充分性及并发症。方法:选择我院45例血液透析患者,其中带涤纶套隧道双腔深静脉置管患者22例,动静脉内瘘患者23例,观察完成透析患者透析充分性指标以及并发症发生情况并进行分析比较。结果:带涤纶套隧道双腔深静脉置管患者与动静脉内瘘患者比较,尿毒清除指数(KT/V)、尿素降低率(URR)及蛋白质分解代谢率(PCR)无显著差异。带涤纶套隧道双腔深静脉置管患者血流不畅、血栓栓塞及感染发生率高于动静脉内瘘患者(P<0.05),而出血发生率低于动静脉内瘘患者(P<0.05)。结论:带涤纶套隧道双腔深静脉导管为通路是血液透析比较理想的血管通路,是一种有效的安全的替代方式,只要采取有效的预防护理措施,降低并发症的发生率,导管的使用寿命可以明显延长。     

兰州市血液透析患者乙型肝炎病毒感染的危险因素

  目的  探讨兰州市血液透析患者乙型肝炎病毒(Hepatitis B virus，HBV)感染的危险因素。  方法  对兰州市五家医院血透门诊血透患者问卷调查，收集患者一般人口学资料、既往病史、血液透析过程相关因素、HBV病毒感染检测资料，对数据进行单因素及广义估计方程模型分析。  结果  共调查565例血液透析患者，其中HBV阳性31例，感染率为5.49%。广义估计方程模型分析显示使用血液制品(1 998年以前OR=8.077，95%CI:3.469~18.803；1998年以后OR=2.678，95%CI:1.719~4.170)、输血(1 998年以前OR=5.344，95%CI:2.212~12.910)、透析龄/月(OR=1.008，95%CI:1.002~1.014)、创伤性美容(OR=1.954，95%CI:1.015~3.766)、文化程度低(OR=3.564，95%CI:1.881~6.753)使透析患者感染HBV的风险提高；年龄>40岁(OR=0.214，95%CI:0.064~0.712)的血液透析患者相对于25岁以下患者乙型肝炎病毒表面抗原(hepatitis B surface antigen，HBsAg)阳性率较低。  结论  使用血液制品、输血、透析龄越长、创伤性美容和文化程度低能增加血透患者感染HBV风险，在临床中应格外重视血液和血液制品管理和使用，规范透析操作，加强乙型肝炎防治宣传工作。     

Impact of surgical site infection surveillance in a neurosurgical unit

This article describes a two-year surveillance of neurosurgical site infections and an outbreak of infections in deep brain stimulation (DBS) cases. From April to December 2008, six patients had a DBS surgical site infection (SSI). Audits of hygiene practices, infection control of the healthcare environment, and preoperative antimicrobial prophylaxis characteristics were carried out. The results of surgical audits showed that skin preparation and antimicrobial prophylaxis were not being performed adequately. In 2008, the general SSI rate was 1.8% (27 SSIs/1471 patients). Length of preoperative stay was significantly longer among infected patients (2.7 ± 2.9 months) compared with uninfected patients (2.2 ± 4.6 months) (P=0.01). Based on these results, skin preparation and antimicrobial prophylaxis were reviewed with the neurosurgery team. In 2009, the general SSI rate was reduced to 1.1% (16 SSI in 1410 patients), a reduction from 2008 (P=0.12). Although the overall incidence of SSI in 2008 (1.8%) was within the range of published data, this surveillance of SSIs permitted identification of site operative infected patients surgically treated for DBS. A set of actions was then taken to reduce SSI risk. This work demonstrates how an active surveillance programme can successfully change clinical care practice.     

尿毒症血液透析患者医源性交叉感染状况调查

目的调查某医院血液净化中心维持性血液透析患者HBV、HCV、HIV、TP交叉感染情况,为临床防控提供科学依据。方法采用前瞻性设计,对近8年内133例血液透析患者进行不同层次分组透析,使用两种方法连续检测比对,数据采用t检验和χ2检验处理分析。结果 (1)133例维持性血液透析患者感染HBV 17例(12.78%)、HCV 22例(16.54%)、HBV和HCV混合感染2例(1.50%)、TP 2例,无HIV感染者。(2)HBV和HCV感染主要集中在移植性肾病、慢性肾炎、糖尿病肾病等患者中,二者感染率与在感染区透析关系密切,其中HCV感染率与移植性肾病相关、与输血史相关(P0.05);而HBV感染与输血史未见明显关联(P0.05),但透析后明显高于透析前(P0.05)。(3)连续对应检测近3年127例透析患者,仅有1例HBs Ag指标转为阳性,未发生HCV、HIV、TP新的交叉感染。结论 HCV感染与移植性肾病、输血史、移植次数高度有关,HBV感染存在透析后交叉感染的风险。血液净化中心严格按照《血液净化标准操作规程》认真操作,维持性血液透析患者的医源性交叉感染将明显减少。     

Handwashing program for the prevention of nosocomial infections in a neonatal intensive care unit.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of a hand hygiene program on compliance with hand hygiene and the rate of nosocomial infections in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). DESIGN: Open trial. SETTING: A level-III NICU in a teaching hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Nurses, physicians, and other healthcare workers in the NICU. INTERVENTIONS: A multimodal campaign for hand hygiene promotion was conducted beginning in September 1998. This program consisted of formal lectures, written instructions and posted reminders regarding hand hygiene and proper handwashing techniques, covert observation, financial incentives, and regular group feedback on compliance. Surveillance of handwashing compliance and nosocomial infections before and during the program was analyzed. RESULTS: Overall compliance with hand hygiene improved from 43% at baseline to 80% during the promotion program. The rate of nosocomial infections decreased from 15.13 to 10.69 per 1,000 patient-days (P = .003) with improved handwashing compliance. In particular, respiratory tract infections decreased from 3.35 to 1.06 per 1,000 patient-days during the handwashing campaign (P = .002). Furthermore, the correlation between nosocomial infection of the respiratory tract and handwashing compliance also reached statistical significance (r = -0.385; P = .014). CONCLUSIONS: Improved compliance with handwashing was associated with a significant decrease in overall rates of nosocomial infection and respiratory infections in particular. Washing hands is a simple, economical, and effective method for preventing nosocomial infections in the NICU.     

The effects of socioeconomic development on worldwide hepatitis A virus seroprevalence patterns

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection confers long-term immunity, so mathematical analysis of age-specific seroprevalence in populations can reveal changes in the infection rate over time. HAV transmission is related to access to clean drinking water, personal hygiene and public sanitation. METHODS: We used an SIR (susceptible-infectious-recovered) compartmental model with age structure to fit a time-dependent logistic function for HAV force of infection for 157 published age-seroprevalence data sets. We then fit linear regression models for socioeconomic variables and infection rate. RESULTS: The proportion of the population with access to clean drinking water, the value of the human development index (HDI), and per capita gross domestic product (GDP) are all inverse predictors of HAV infection rates. Declining infection rates were observed in 65.6% of the surveys. Discussion This work demonstrates the utility of HAV seroprevalence studies to reveal patterns of change in force of infection and to assess the association between socioeconomic risk factors and transmission rates.     

门诊血液透析患者血管通路感染目标性监测

目的了解门诊血液透析患者血管通路感染发病情况及其危险因素。方法采用前瞻性监测方法,参照国内外相关指南及规范制定监测方法,对某院2014年6月1日—2016年5月31日所有门诊血液透析患者进行目标性监测。结果 2014年6月1日—2016年5月31日共有门诊血液透析患者584例,血管通路总次数为64 203例次,发生感染79例,85例次,血管通路感染例次发病率为1.32‰。其中血管穿刺部位感染36例(42.35%),血管通路相关血流感染49例(57.65%)。不同血管通路类型患者中人工血管患者的血管通路感染发病率最高(19.67‰),其次为非隧道式中心静脉置管患者(4.91‰)、隧道式中心静脉置管患者(0.73‰)、动静脉内瘘患者(0.09‰)。年龄60岁、透析时间1年、伴有糖尿病、高血压是门诊血液透析患者发生血管通路感染的危险因素(均P0.05)。49例血管通路相关血流感染患者送检的血标本中共分离病原菌39株。革兰阳性球菌36株(92.31%),主要为金黄色葡萄球菌(30株,其中6株为耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌);革兰阴性杆菌3株(7.69%)。结论加强前瞻性目标监测,可以更好地了解门诊血液透析患者血管通路感染的现状、特征及其危险因素,有利于采取针对性的预防控制措施,从而减少门诊血液透析患者血管通路感染的发生。     

An outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections related to central venous catheters for hemodialysis.

OBJECTIVES: To determine risk factors for hemodialysis catheter-related bloodstream infections (HCRBSIs) and investigate whether use of maximal sterile barrier precautions would prevent HCRBSIs. SETTING: Tertiary-care medical center hemodialysis unit. DESIGN: Open trial with historical comparison and case-control study of risk factors for HCRBSIs. METHODS: Prospective surveillance was used to compare HCRBSI rates for 1 year before and after implementation of maximal sterile barrier precautions. A case-control study compared 50 case-patients with HCRBSI with 51 randomly selected control-patients. RESULTS: The HCRBSI rate was 1.6% per 100 dialysis runs (CI95, 1.1%-2.3%) in the first year and 0.77% (CI95, 0.5%-1.1%) in the second year (P = .0106). The most frequent cause of HCRBSI was MRSA in the first year (15 of 32) and MSSA in the second year (13 of 18). Ten MRSA blood isolates in the first year were identical by PFGE. Diabetes mellitus was a risk factor for HCRBSI. Age, gender, site of hemodialysis central venous catheter (CVC), other underlying diseases, coma score, APACHE II score, serum albumin level, and cholesterol level were not associated with HCRBSI and did not change between the 2 years. Hospital stay was prolonged for case-patients (32.78 +/- 20.96 days) versus control-patients (22.75 +/- 17.33 days), but mortality did not differ. CONCLUSIONS: Use of maximal sterile barrier precautions during the insertion of CVCs reduced HCRBSIs in dialysis patients and seemed cost-effective. Diabetes mellitus was associated with HCRBSI. An outbreak of MRSA in the first year was likely caused by cross-infection via medical personnel.