Pressure ulcer risk factors in patients undergoing surgery

AIM: This paper reports a study to identify risk factors associated with pressure ulcer development among a mixed group of adult patients undergoing surgery. BACKGROUND: Few studies have been carried out with patients undergoing surgery to assess the risk of pressure ulcer development, and so there is a little knowledge of the risk factors for this group. However, studies among non-surgical patients have shown that nutritional predictors such as low serum albumin level and low body mass index (BMI) are of great importance. An additional predictive factor may be low blood pressure. It is important to study these predictors further among patients undergoing surgery, using techniques such as multiple regression techniques, designed to identify the most important predictors for pressure ulcer development. METHODS: A prospective comparative study was carried out in 1996-1998 with 286 adult patients undergoing surgical treatment. The data were collected from patient records by Registered Nurses preoperatively, for seven days postoperatively and thereafter once a week for up to 12 weeks. Perioperative data were also collected. The Risk Assessment Pressure Sore Scale was used, and data were collected on general physical condition, activity, mobility, moisture, food intake, fluid intake, sensory perception, friction and shear, body temperature and serum albumin. RESULTS: Forty-one (14.3%) patients developed pressure ulcers during the observation period. The most common type was non-blanchable erythema. Those who developed pressure ulcers were significantly older, weighed less, and had a lower BMI and serum albumin. More women than men developed pressure ulcers. Risk factors identified in multiple stepwise regression analyses were female gender, American Society of Anaesthesiologists (ASA) status or New York Heart Association (NYHA) status and food-intake. CONCLUSION: Special attention, with regard to risk of pressure ulcer development, should be paid to patients undergoing surgery who have low ASA or NYHA scores, low food intake and/or are women.     

Pressure ulcers in palliative care: development of a hospice pressure ulcer risk assessment scale

The aim of this study was to construct a pressure ulcer risk assessment scale appropriate for palliative care patients. Risk assessments were performed using the modified Norton scale and nine newly constructed scales, consisting of the modified Norton scale with various changes. Data were collected from 98 patients in a Swedish hospice between April 1999 and September 2000. Pressure ulcer occurrence was registered weekly in the patient record. Increasing age, male gender, physical inactivity, immobility, decreasing food and fluid intake, incontinence, poor general physical condition and lean body constitution were shown to be significant risk factors for development of pressure ulcers in terminally ill cancer patients. After further testing of the data, one scale was found to be superior in identifying patients at risk, with higher validity than the modified Norton scale. The assessment items in this new scale, The Hospice Pressure Ulcer Risk Assessment Scale (in Swedish: Hospice Riskbed?ming Trycks?r, (HoRT)), are physical activity, mobility and age.     

老年神经内科住院患者的压疮危险因素分析及护理对策

目的探讨老年神经内科住院患者的压疮危险因素及相关护理干预对策。方法回顾性分析在老年神经内科住院治疗的100例高龄患者的临床资料,评估每位患者的年龄、营养状况、合并症、医疗器械相关性因素(留置胃管、导尿管、PICC管、气管插管、呼吸机管路等及使用心电监护仪器等)以及Norton量表,将2015年2—12月的51例患者纳入对照组,将2016年1—9月的49例患者纳入观察组,对照组采用常规护理,观察组在此基础上由压疮监控管理小组制定管理流程,护理人员接受压疮知识培训后对患者实施个性化、预见性护理措施,比较2组Norton量表评分、压疮发生率以及患者满意度等。结果老年性痴呆、医疗器械相关性因素、低BMI以及贫血是高龄患者发生压疮的独立危险因素;观察组Norton评分、压疮发生率均低于对照组(P0.05);观察组患者及家属满意度高于对照组(P0.05)。结论老年性痴呆、医疗器械相关性因素、低BMI以及贫血是高龄患者发生压疮的独立危险因素,对老年神经内科住院压疮高危患者采取监控管理及预见性护理措施,可有效降低压疮风险和发生率,提高患者及家属满意度。     

A risk assessment scale for the prediction of pressure sore development: reliability and validity

BACKGROUND: The ability to assess the risk of a patient developing pressure sores is a major issue in pressure sore prevention. Risk assessment scales should be valid, reliable and easy to use in clinical practice. AIM: To develop further a risk assessment scale, for predicting pressure sore development and, in addition, to present the validity and reliability of this scale. METHODS: The risk assessment pressure sore (RAPS) scale, includes 12 variables, five from the re-modified Norton scale, three from the Braden scale and three from other research results. Five hundred and thirty patients without pressure sores on admission were included in the study and assessed over a maximum period of 12 weeks. Internal consistency was examined by item analysis and equivalence by interrater reliability. To estimate equivalence, 10 pairs of nurses assessed a total of 116 patients. The underlying dimensions of the scale were examined by factor analysis. The predictive validity was examined by determination of sensitivity, specificity and predictive value. RESULTS: Two variables were excluded as a result of low item-item and item-total correlations. The average percentage of agreement and the intraclass correlation between raters were 70% and 0.83, respectively. The factor analysis gave three factors, with a total variance explained of 65.1%. Sensitivity, specificity and predictive value were high among patients at medical and infection wards. CONCLUSION: The RAPS scale is a reliable scale for predicting pressure sore development. The validity is especially good for patients undergoing treatment in medical wards and wards for infectious diseases. This indicates that the RAPS scale may be useful in clinical practice for these groups of patients. For patients undergoing surgical treatment, further analysis will be performed.     

老年压疮相关因素的Logistic回归分析

目的 发现老年患者发生院内压疮的相关因素.方法 选取某三级甲等医院压疮高发科室中的老年住院患者271例,连续观察各种指标变化和压疮结局,运用Logistic回归分析观察指标与压疮的关联.结果 医疗护理措施、手术、活动度受损、组织耐受性改变等与压疮发生相关显著.2种压疮结局(I度以上压疮和II度以上压疮)的因素分析结果 基本一致.结论 医疗护理措施、手术、活动度受损、组织耐受性改变等可增加老年住院患者的压疮风险,临床护理中需实施针对性的预防和干预.     

压疮危险因素评估表预测不同患者群体压疮发生的研究

目的比较压疮危险因素评估表（Norton ulcer risk assessment scale,以下简称Norton量表）对不同年龄组及不同病区患者压疮的预测效果。方法运用Norton量表对内外科住院患者进行连续评估,计算量表对不同患者群体预测的灵敏度、特异性、预测值。结果 Norton量表对老年患者灵敏度96.96%、特异性87.68%、阳性预测值22.96%,阴性预测值99.87%;对中青年患者灵敏度97.37%、特异性96.73%、阳性预测值12.05%、阴性预测值99.98%,Norton量表对老年患者及中青年患者压疮预测均具有较高的灵敏度和特异性。Norton量表对内科、外科及不同病区患者均具有较高的预测灵敏度;对神经外科、ICU患者预测特异性较低。结论 Norton量表对不同年龄组和不同病区患者皆具有较好的预测效果,内外科各病区可以统一使用Norton量表对患者进行压疮高危筛查和评估。     

Risk assessment for pressure ulcer in critical patients

Bedridden patients are in risk to developing pressure ulcers and represent a priority group to be studied to identify this condition. To reach this goal, specific instruments are used to assess this problem. The objective of this study was to analyze the risk factors to developing pressure ulcers in adult patients hospitalized in ICUs. This is a sectional analytical study, in which evaluations were performed on 140 patients, hospitalized in 22 ICUs, using the Braden scale. Results showed that patients hospitalized from 15 days or more showed some level of risk. The highest frequencies of pressure ulcers were found in patients in the following categories: sensorial perception (completely limited), moistness (constantly moist), mobility (completely immobilized), activity (bedridden), nutrition (adequate) and friction and shear (problem). In conclusion, the use of this scale is an important strategy when providing care to patients in intensive treatment.     

Validity of the Waterlow scale for pressure ulcer risk assessment in the intensive care unit: a prospective analysis of 698 patients

Critically ill patients are at a particular risk for developing pressure ulcers. Yet until now, no sufficiently specific, validated pressure ulcer risk assessment instruments exist for critically ill patients. In a prospective study of 698 patients of medical intensive care unit (ICU), we therefore analyzed if the Waterlow scale is suitable for pressure ulcer risk assessment in the ICU. Only patients with no pressure ulcer on admission to the ICU were included. The Waterlow scale was used to assess pressure ulcer risk on admission to the ICU, and the number of points on the scale were analyzed with regard to pressure ulcers development in the course of the ICU stay (121 patients). Our results show that adequate pressure ulcer risk assessment on admission to the ICU is not possible with the Waterlow scale. Sensitivity and specificity reached their maximal values of 64.6% and 48.8%, respectively, at a comparably high cut-off of 30 points on the Waterlow scale (positive and negative likelihood ratio being 1.26 and 0.73, respectively). The area under the curve (AUC) was 0.59 in the receiver-operator-characteristic curve. Adding intensive care related parameters to the scale yielded some degree of improvement (AUC 0.69), but the development of ICU specific pressure ulcer risk scales still seems to be necessary to allow reliable pressure ulcer risk assessment in the ICU.     

Development of a new risk assessment scale for predicting pressure ulcers in an intensive care unit

Aims and objectives: The study aimed to evaluate the predictive validity and accuracy of a new pressure ulcer risk assessment scale in two Indonesia intensive care units (ICUs). Background: Several risk assessment scales have been designed to identify patients at risk of developing pressure ulcers in ICU. However, the relative weight of each variable that contributes to pressure ulcer development in these scales is not described to enable designing of a risk assessment scale. Currently, the risk factors contributing to pressure ulcer development include interface pressure, body temperature and cigarette smoking. Design: A prospective cohort study was conducted in two ICUs in Pontianak, Indonesia. Methods: A total of 253 patients were recruited to the study from both hospitals. Data collection included new risk assessment scale [i.e. the Suriadi and Sanada (S.S.) scale] scoring, demographic, pressure ulcer severity scores (based on the National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel) and skin condition measures. Using the S.S. scale, trained data collectors scored patients once and assessed the body temperature daily until patients were discharged. Additionally, daily data were also collected in relation to the patient‘s skin condition and stage of pressure ulcer. Results: Out of the 253 patients, 72 (28·4%) developed pressure ulcers. In ICU A, the incidence was 27%; pressure ulcers developed into stage I (41·7%), stage II (45·8%), stage III (10·4%) and stage IV (2·1%). In ICU B, the incidence was 31·6%; the development of pressure ulcers was 48% in stage I and 52% in stage II. Using the predictive validity test, the S.S. scale balanced sensitivity (81%) and specificity (83%) at a cut‐off score of 4. The area under the receiver‐operating characteristic curve was 0·888 (confidence interval: 0·84–0·93). Conclusion: The S.S. scale was found to be a valid risk assessment tool to identify the patients at risk of developing pressure ulcers in Indonesia ICU.     

Braden评估表在神经内科卧床患者压疮预防中的应用

目的评价Braden评估表对神经内科卧床患者压疮的预测效果,探讨压疮分组预防措施效果。方法选取400例新人院、首次评估无压疮的神经内科卧床患者,应用Braden评估表动态评估发生压疮的危险性,将400例患者按评分分为高危、中危、低危及无危组4组各100例,并分别将高危、中危、低危组随机分为实验组和对照组各50例;对照组采取常规干预措施,高危实验组使用气垫床,中危实验组使用海绵床垫,低危实验组每4h翻身1次,其他预防措施同对照组,无危险组不采取任何干预措施。结果Braden评估表在首次和末次评分时ROC曲线下面积分别为0．771和0．828,诊断界值取17分时其对应灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值等指标均能达到较高水平。在分组干预中,高、中、低危实验组分别与对照组比较,各组压疮发生率均无显著差异。结论Braden评估表对神经内科卧床患者压疮发生有较好的预测效果,17分是较理想的诊断界值。对神经内科压疮高危者采用气垫床、中度危险者采用海绵垫,压疮发生率降低不显著。低危者可采取每4h翻身1次的方法以减少资源的消耗。     

Incidence of pressure ulcers in a neurologic intensive care unit

OBJECTIVES: To determine the risk factors for pressure ulceration in an intensive care setting, to evaluate the Braden scale as a predictor of pressure ulcer risk in critically ill patients, and to determine whether pressure ulcers are likely to occur early in the hospital stay. DESIGN: Cohort study of patients with no preexisting ulcers with a 3-month enrollment period. SETTING: The neurologic intensive care unit and the neurologic intermediate unit at a primary care/referral hospital with a level I trauma center. PATIENTS: A total of 186 patients entered the study. INTERVENTION: Within 12 hrs of admittance, initial assessment, photographs, and Braden score were completed. Patients were re-examined every 4 days or at discharge from the unit, whichever came first. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Determining risk factors for pressure ulcers, performing detailed statistical analyses, and testing the usefulness of the Braden score as a predictor of pressure ulcer risk. RESULTS: Twenty-three of 186 patients developed at least one pressure ulcer (incidence = 12.4%) after an average stay of 6.4 days. The Braden scale, which measures six characteristics of skin condition and patient status, proved to be a primary predictor of ulcer development. No ulcers developed in the 69 patients whose Braden score was 16 or higher. The likelihood of developing a pressure sore was predicted mathematically from the Braden score. However, being underweight was a significant and distinct factor in pressure ulcer development. CONCLUSIONS: Pressure ulcers may develop within the first week of hospitalization in the intensive care unit. Patients at risk have Braden scores of < or = 16 and are more likely to be underweight. These results suggest that aggressive preventive care should be focused on those patients with Braden scores of < or = 13 and/or a low body mass index at admission.     

Braden评估表在神经内科卧床患者压疮预防中的应用

目的 评价Braden评估表对神经内科卧床患者压疮的预测效果,探讨压疮分组预防措施效果.方法 选取400例新人院、首次评估无压疮的神经内科卧床患者,应用Braden评估表动态评估发生压疮的危险性,将400例患者按评分分为高危、中危、低危及无危组4组各100例,并分别将高危、中危、低危组随机分为实验组和对照组各50例;对照组采取常规干预措施,高危实验组使用气垫床,中危实验组使用海绵床垫,低危实验组每4 h翻身1次,其他预防措施同对照组,无危险组不采取任何干预措施.结果 Braden评估表在首次和末次评分时ROC曲线下面积分别为0.771和0.828,诊断界值取17分时其对应灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值等指标均能达到较高水平.在分组干预中,高、中、低危实验组分别与对照组比较,各组压疮发生率均无显著差异.结论 Braden评估表对神经内科卧床患者压疮发生有较好的预测效果,17分是较理想的诊断界值.对神经内科压疮高危者采用气挚床、中度危险者采用海绵垫,压疮发生率降低不显著.低危者可采取每4 h翻身1次的方法以减少资源的消耗.     

Risk factors associated with pressure ulcer development in critically ill traumatic spinal cord injury patients

Critically ill spinal cord injury (SCI) patients are at high risk for pressure ulcers. Research is needed to identify risk factors for pressure ulcers. The aim of this study was to investigate risk factors and outcomes of pressure ulcers in critically ill SCI patients. This is a retrospective cohort study. Data were gathered from medical records of adult patients with SCI admitted to surgical intensive care units. Ninety-four SCI patients participated in this study. Clinical variables associated with pressure ulcers were as follows: fecal management systems, incontinence, acidosis, support surfaces, steroids, and additional equipment. Hypotension was the strongest predictor of pressure ulcers. Nursing interventions may address risk factors and improve patient outcomes.     

Nontraumatic spinal cord injury rehabilitation: pressure ulcer patterns, prediction, and impact

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the characteristics, predictors, and consequences of pressure ulcers in patients with nontraumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). DESIGN: Retrospective, 3-year, case series. SETTING: Tertiary medical unit specializing in SCI rehabilitation. PARTICIPANTS: Consecutive sample of 134 adult inpatient referrals with nontraumatic SCI. Patients requiring initial rehabilitation or readmission were included. INTERVENTION: Chart review. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary outcome measures were presence of pressure ulcers on admission to rehabilitation, incidence of new pressure ulcers developing during hospitalization, and any complications attributable to pressure ulcers during inpatient rehabilitation. Secondary objectives were to examine the predictability of risk factors for pressure ulcers, to assess the usefulness of a model previously developed for predicting pressure ulcers in patients with chronic SCI, and to estimate the effect of pressure ulcers on rehabilitation of nontraumatic SCI. RESULTS: Prevalence of pressure ulcers among admissions was 31.3% (n=42). Only 2.2% (n=3) of patients developed a new pressure ulcer after admission. The length of stay (LOS) of patients admitted with a pressure ulcer was significantly longer than that of those without a pressure ulcer (geometric mean, 62.3 d for pressure ulcer vs 28.2 d for no pressure ulcer, P=.0001). Many previously identified risk factors for pressure ulcers in SCI patients did not apply to our nontraumatic SCI patients. It is estimated that the inpatient LOS for those patients with a significant pressure ulcer was increased by 42 days. CONCLUSIONS: Pressure ulcers are a common complication for people with nontraumatic SCI who are admitted for rehabilitation, and they have a significant impact on LOS.     

标准化防护流程在压疮管理中的应用

目的探讨标准化防护流程在提高压疮护理质量中的应用。方法成立压疮监控学组,制订压疮标准化护理评价量表,规范压疮评估与呈报,对住院压疮及高危患者从入院到出院整个过程都实施标准化防护流程,进行全程质量监控和效果评价。结果提高了护士对压疮的风险评估准确率和防护措施正确率(P0.01),降低了院内压疮发生率(P0.01),提高了院外带入压疮的治愈/好转率(P0.01)。结论标准化防护流程,能有效规范护理行为,保障护理措施落实到位,提高压疮防护质量和管理水平,有效保障患者安全。     

手术患者压疮发生率及发生时间和影响因素研究

目的：探讨手术患者压疮发生率、发生时间特点和相关因素,为临床制定应对措施提供依据。方法：按照统一标准在12所综合医院中入选1074例术后患者,预防措施相同,采用“外科压疮风险评估表”收集每例患者术后0～5d基线资料,使用Braden计分量表评估压疮危险。采用Logistic回归分析压疮发生的影响因素。结果：观察期内1074例手术患者中发生11例11处Ⅰ期压疮,发生率1.02%,其中外科监护病房发生率1.95%。多发生在术后1～3d内。压疮发生的影响因素为：手术时间、术后皮肤水肿和使用矫形装置及Braden计分（P〈0.05）。结论：对手术时间≥2h、术后皮肤水肿、使用矫形装置及Braden计分≤16分的患者应作为术后压疮预防的重点对象,但Braden量表对围手术期患者压疮风险的预测作用尚有待于进一步研究。     

Cigarette smoking and risk of pressure ulcer in adult intensive care unit patients

The objective of this study was to assess relationship between smoking, some other risk factors and ulcers development in intensive care unit. This prospective cohort study was performed in two university‐affiliated hospitals. The sample consisted of adult male patients who were admitted to medical–surgical intensive care units. All eligible patients were grouped according to their cigarette smoking status as smoker and non‐smoker. The final sample included 160 smokers and 192 non‐smokers. Pressure ulcer occurred in 62 smoker patients and 28 of non‐smoker who showed significant difference. Also number of pack‐year of cigarettes smoking showed significant association with ulcer development. Ulcer stage was significantly different between the two groups. Besides of smoking, age, length of stay, faecal incontinency, diabetes mellitus, anaemia and trauma were significantly associated with pressure ulcers. Our study showed significant association between smoking and development of pressure ulcers.     

两种压疮评估表在外科长期卧床患者中的应用效果比较

目的:比较我院自行研制的压疮危险评估量表(SPURAS)与Braden评估量表在外科长期卧床住院患者压疮评估中的应用效果。方法:将我院457例外科住院、丧失下肢行动能力患者随机分为A,B两组,A组(228例)采用外科住院患者SPURAS量表进行评估,B组(229例)采用Braden量表评估,根据评估结果分别给予相应的护理措施。结果:A组实际发生压疮7例,发生率为3.10%;B组实际发生压疮17例,发生率为7.42%,两组比较有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:SPURAS量表预测外科长期卧床住院患者压疮的效果与Braden压疮评估表比较,SPURAS量表更加直观,易于操作,节省时间,提高效率。     

Are patients with or at risk of pressure ulcers allocated appropriate prevention measures?

The aims of the study were to investigate the risk for and prevalence of pressure ulcers in different medical care groups, to discover if patients at risk for or with pressure ulcers are allocated appropriate pressure ulcer preventions and to investigate which variables are associated with appropriate pressure ulcer preventions. A cross-sectional survey design was used and followed the methodology developed by the European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel. A total of 612 patients participated in the study. The prevalence of pressure ulcers was greatest in geriatric care, followed by intensive care, acute care and neurological care. The majority of patients at risk for or with pressure ulcers did not receive appropriate preventative measures, either while they were in bed or in a chair. Significant variables associated with appropriate preventions in bed were intensive care, geriatric care, a low Braden score, a low score in the subscale activity and a long hospital stay.     

The role of support surfaces and patient attributes in preventing pressure ulcers in elderly patients

Nurses caring for elderly patients often need to select support surfaces that reduce the likelihood of pressure ulcers, but there is little information about the effectiveness of different support surfaces. This randomized trial compared two support surfaces and investigated patient attributes related to the risk of developing a pressure ulcer. Eighty-four elderly patients were nursed on a convoluted or solid foam overlay and assessed three times a week for pressure ulcers. Stepwise Cox proportional hazards regression revealed a statistically significant relationship between the risk of developing a pressure ulcer and the variables mobility and type of support surface. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.