Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for perioperative support in neonatal and pediatric cardiac transplantation

Currently there is a lack of consensus on guidelines in the clinical application of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in neonatal and pediatric cardiac transplantation patients. In this context, given the limited data presently available through the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO) Registry, we conducted a preliminary survey to specifically evaluate the practice of using ECMO as a bridge to cardiac transplantation or as posttransplantation therapy for failure to wean from cardiopulmonary bypass or graft failure. We received responses to our questionnaire from 95 of 118 (81%) centers located in the U.S.A. and abroad. Of the 95 centers that responded, 36 were performing neonatal/pediatric cardiac transplants, with 29 centers reporting the concomitant use of ECMO to support cardiac transplant patients. There was wide variability in the responses from the 29 centers to a selected list of relative ECMO contraindications. However, only 7 centers had specific ECMO entry criteria for cardiac transplant patients. Fifteen of the 29 centers provided relevant data on cardiac transplant patients including the proportions of neonatal (11 of 37) and pediatric (63 of 217) patients requiring ECMO; neonatal (2 of 5) and pediatric (16 of 27) patients surviving to transplant; and neonatal (1 of 5) and pediatric (12 of 27) patients surviving to hospital discharge. These findings confirm the important role of ECMO in providing perioperative support in neonatal and pediatric cardiac transplantation patients. However, the lack of consensus among centers contributes to uncertainty in the decision making process to offer ECMO and to utilize ECMO effectively in this high risk population. We recommend that institution-specific information be collected, either using the ELSO Registry (or by a similar multicentric database) to develop specific guidelines for ECMO applications in cardiac transplant patients, and to carefully monitor and follow up EMCO treated patients to further evaluate the efficacy of this limited resource.     

Surgical aspects of pediatric cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

Because children with severe myocardial dysfunction have limited therapeutic options, mechanical support of a failing heart is a matter of great interest. In the setting of cardiogenic shock or severe low cardiac output and hypoperfusion, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) can produce decisive improvements. The criteria for successful treatment include appropriate patient selection, improved surgical techniques and experience, higher recognition and anticipation of complications, and minimized delay in initiation of ECMO. Because the need for mechanical circulatory support may arise pre-, intra-, and postoperatively, every pediatric cardiac surgeon must be familiar with the principles and the surgical aspects of ECMO.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation bridge to adult heart transplantation

Chung JC, Tsai PR, Chou NK, Chi NH, Wang SS, Ko WJ. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation bridge to adult heart transplantation.
Clin Transplant 2010: 24: 375–380. © 2009 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Abstract: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) can rescue some critical patients with circulatory collapse when intra‐aortic balloon pump (IABP) and ventricular assist devices (VAD) are not suitable. A subset of these patients can use ECMO for direct bridging, or indirect double bridging via VAD to heart transplantation (HTx). For these patients, we identified risk factors for unsuccessful ECMO bridging, with survival to receiving either HTx or VAD as the measure of success. The characteristics evaluated were age, sex, body mass index, pre‐ECMO cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), IABP use, dialysis use, sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score, and the etiology of cardiomyopathy. From January 1995 to August 2007, there were 70 adult ECMO patients with the intent to bridge to HTx (male: 55, age: 46 ± 14 yr). Thirty‐one patients (44%) were successful in bridging. A stepwise multivariate logistic regression analysis found that age > 50 yr (p = 0.003), pre‐ECMO CPR (p = 0.001) and SOFA score > 10 at ECMO initiation (p = 0.018) were significant independent predictors of unsuccessful bridging. Direct VAD implantation, if possible, is preferable to double bridging in patients over 50 yr. Also, elective ECMO support before hemodynamic deterioration to cardiac arrest or multiple organ dysfunction would improve rates of successful ECMO bridging.     

体外膜肺氧合用于心死亡供肝的初步经验

目的 总结体外膜肺氧合(ECMO)保护心死亡供肝的初步经验.方法 回顾分析2009年7月至2011年5月期间广州军区总医院肝移植中心施行的17例心死亡肝移植供者临床资料,了解供者原发病和有关指标、供者捐献与获取流程、ECMO使用方法.结果 17例供者均先诊断脑死亡然后等待心脏停跳,属于脑心双死亡供者(DBCD).在心死亡过程全部应用了ECMO,ECMO时间51～380(平均187)min.所有供者均成功获取了供肝并用于受者.受者全组无手术死亡.术后肝功能恢复满意,未发生原发性移植肝无功能并发症.术后1个月内因肺部感染死亡1例,其余16例顺利康复出院并随访至今,随访最长时间为29个月.结论 DBCD是我国公民心死亡供体的特殊类型.ECMO可以控制DBCD热缺血损伤且没有伦理学争议,对我国公民心死亡器官捐献有着十分重要的作用.     

体外膜肺氧合在心脏移植围手术期的应用

目的总结心脏移植受者围手术期应用体外膜肺氧合(ECMO)的单中心经验。 方法回顾性分析2012年6月至2018年4月于解放军第924医院行心脏移植且围手术期接受ECMO辅助的19例受者临床资料。男性15例,女性4例,平均年龄(42±8)岁,平均体质量(58±8) kg。原发病包括扩张型心肌病13例,缺血性心肌病2例,瓣膜性心肌病2例,以及致心律失常型右室心肌病和限制型心肌病各1例。术前平均左心室射血分数(24±7)%,平均肺动脉收缩压(48±7) mmHg。供受者体质量相差均<20%,供心冷缺血时间平均(92±25) min。 结果19例受者中,ECMO术前植入1例,术中植入15例,术后植入3例。ECMO转流时间(73±36) h。5例受者因心功能无改善无法撤机,最终放弃治疗,其中2例出现消化道出血被迫撤机。其余14例受者顺利撤机,其中3例受者撤机后分别因感染、急性排斥反应和多器官功能衰竭死亡。并发症包括：膜肺渗漏5例,床旁开胸止血8例,下肢缺血2例,急性肾损伤13例,急性肝衰竭2例,消化道出血4例,肺部感染1例。6例受者联合使用主动脉内球囊反搏辅助。 结论ECMO在心脏移植围手术期的应用效果良好,早期积极应用是其成功的关键。     

Proposed entry criteria for postoperative cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation after pediatric open heart surgery

While extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is being used increasingly after pediatric cardiac surgery, criteria are lacking for initiating ECMO after bypass weaning. To develop clinically useful ECMO entry criteria based on parameters readily available, children were examined at postoperative pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission. Using hospital mortality as the primary outcome, univariate and multiple logistic regressions were performed to estimate the predictive value of clinical (age, weight, and diagnosis) and laboratory (arterial blood pressure, pH, lactate, creatine kinase, and arterial and central venous oxygen saturation [ScvO2]) variables. Data from 218 children over a 2 year period were analyzed retrospectively. Univariate regression demonstrated that age, weight, diagnosis, blood pressure, venous and arterial saturation, and lactate were significantly associated with postoperative mortality (p < 0.05). In multiple regression, ScvO2 and lactate level were found to be independent predictors and were used in a predictive model (ScvO2 odds ratio: 2.03-828.6, p = 0.016) (lactate odds ratio: 1.58 -4.20, p = 0.0002) (R2 = 0.70). Applying an 80% risk of mortality to establish entry criteria as in neonatal ECMO, PICU admission values of lactate > 70 mg/dl if ScvO2 < 60% or lactate >163 mg/dl if ScvO2 > 60% are proposed to serve as postoperative ECMO entry criteria if bypass weaning has been possible but is followed by low cardiac output.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for support of children after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization experience

Purpose

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a means of respiratory and hemodynamic support for patients failing conventional therapies. Children requiring hematopoietic stem cell transplantation who develop complications during therapy may require ECMO. Such patients pose medical and ethical challenges for clinicians considering initiation of ECMO. The authors review the outcomes of these patients and propose recommendations.

Methods

The Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Registry was queried for all patients younger than 18 years with an International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, or Current Procedural Terminology code related to bone or stem cell transplant.

Results

Nineteen children in the registry met inclusion criteria. The median age was 9.6 years (7 months to 17.5 years). Initiation of ECMO was for pulmonary support (n = 17), cardiac support (n = 1), or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (n = 1). The median duration of ECMO support was 5.1 days (range, 30 hours to 42 days). Pulmonary infections included 3 parainfluenza, 2 Pneumocystis carinii, 1 influenza A, and 1 respiratory syncytial virus. Overall, 15 (79%) died during their ECMO run, whereas only 4 (21%) survived to come off ECMO. Furthermore, of those who survived their ECMO run, only one patient survived to discharge from the hospital. Risk factors for death on ECMO include development of renal complications and development of multiorgan dysfunction.

Conclusion

Patients who require ECMO for cardiopulmonary support after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation have a poor prognosis. Clinicians must be cautious in presenting this option to parents and present them with appropriate expectations in this high-risk population.     

体外膜肺氧合在心脏死亡器官捐献中的应用

心脏死亡器官捐献(DCD)中供者器官不可避免地要经历热缺血损伤,移植术后原发性移植物无功能、移植物丢失以及缺血性胆管疾病等并发症的发生率较高.因此,如何避免、减少或修复DCD器官热缺血损伤进而保护移植受者的安全是当前DCD研究的一个热点.广州军区广州总医院肝脏移植中心于2009年2月开始使用体外膜肺氧合(ECMO)对DCD器官进行保护,目前共完成了52例ECMO辅助下DCD器官获取,均获得满意疗效.ECMO对DCD器官热缺血损伤的保护和修复机制不仅在国际DCD器官移植领域显示出良好的应用前景,更是解决我国DCD热缺血损伤的有效方法.笔者认为:这些机制对进一步扩大ECMO在我国DCD的应用范围,建立适合我国国情的人体器官捐献和获取标准流程和技术规范具有十分重要的意义.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation following Norwood stage 1 procedures at a single institution

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is an important circulatory assist for children with refractory cardiopulmonary dysfunction, but its role and indications after a stage 1 Norwood procedure are controversial. We assessed outcomes and risk factors in patients who underwent a Norwood palliation and ECMO at our institution. We retrospectively reviewed all patients who underwent a Norwood procedure and were supported with ECMO between January 1998 and January 2010. Of the 91 children who underwent a Norwood procedure during the study period, there were 15 postoperative runs of ECMO in 12 patients. The diagnoses of the patients included five with hypoplastic left heart syndrome, five with a hypoplastic left heart syndrome variant, and two with critical aortic stenosis. A total of four patients underwent bilateral pulmonary artery banding, and two patients underwent aortic valvuloplasty before the stage 1 Norwood procedure. The mean age of the patients was 28±30 days, and mean body weight was 2.6±0.5kg at the induction of ECMO. The indications for ECMO were low cardiac output in six children, circulatory collapse needing cardiopulmonary resuscitation in six children, and hypoxemia in three children. Five of the 12 patients were successfully weaned from ECMO. The significant risk factors for the inability to be weaned from ECMO were a history of circulatory collapse requiring cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and the induction of ECMO in the intensive care unit. Induction of ECMO may be considered earlier when hemodynamics are unstable in impaired patients following a stage 1 Norwood procedure to avoid circulatory collapse.     

体外膜式氧合治疗心脏术后急性心肺功能衰竭

目的 探讨体外膜式氧合(ECMO)治疗心脏术后急性心肺功能衰竭的经验.方法 回顾性分析2005年3月至2008年6月心脏术后接受ECMO辅助的117例患者的临床资料.男性85例,女性32例,平均年龄(48.7±16.5)岁.其中80例患者因术中无法脱离心肺转流、35例因术后急性心脏功能衰竭进行静脉-动脉转流,2例因术后急性呼吸功能衰竭进行静脉-静脉转流.结果 平均ECMO辅助时间61 h,平均监护室停留时间5 d.87例(74.4%)成功脱离ECMO,69例(59.0%)痊愈.主要并发症为出血38例、感染32例、肾功能衰竭需要透析29例、氧合器血浆渗漏29例、溶血7例、肢体血栓5例、神经系统并发症4例.结论 ECMO是一种有效的短期机械辅助方法,应掌握适应证尽早建立,积极防治并发症可降低死亡率.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as a lifesaving modality in the treatment of pediatric patients with burns and respiratory failure

Purpose

Several case series have described successful utilization of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for the treatment of pediatric burn patients with respiratory failure. This study examines the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry experience in the treatment of these patients.

Methods

The Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry was queried from 1999 to 2008 for all patients not older than 18 years who suffered a burn-related injury.

Results

Thirty-six patients met inclusion criteria. The mean age was 4.45 years, with an average weight of 20.9 kg. Survivors vs nonsurvivors had a shorter average time to ECMO (97 vs 126 hours, P = .890) and shorter average ECMO run times (193 vs 210 hours, P = .745). Seventeen patients underwent venovenous ECMO and 19 patients underwent venoarterial ECMO, with survival of 59% (n = 10) and 47% (n = 9), respectively (P = .493; odds ratio, 1.587; 95% confidence interval, 0.424-5.945). Overall survival was 53% (n = 19). Complications occurred in 28 patients (33 mechanical, 101 medical). The venoarterial group had 21 mechanical (n = 8) and 61 medical complications (n = 17), compared with the venovenous group with 12 mechanical (n = 8) and 40 medical complications (n = 11).

Conclusions

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation can be a lifesaving modality for pediatric burn patients with respiratory failure. Survival is comparable to the reported survival of non-burn-related pulmonary failure pediatric patients requiring ECMO.     

体外膜肺氧合对心脏手术后心源性休克的辅助效果

目的 报道体外膜肺氧合器(ECMO)对心脏术后心源性休克进行辅助的初步结果并总结经验.方法 2004年6月至2006年10月,临床应用肝素涂层ECMO对心脏术后心源性休克进行辅助26例,其中冠心病10例,瓣膜病6例,心脏移植4例,先心病5例,大血管病变1例.年龄7个月～76岁,平均(44.6±19.7)岁;体重6.5～90.0 kg,平均(64.1±18.6)kg.结果 辅助8～336 h.16例脱机,脱机率为61.5%.4例脱机后死亡,12例生存出院(46.2%).结论 ECMO可以有效地进行心脏术后心源性休克的辅助,辅助效果较好.     

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as a bridge to definitive tracheal reconstruction in neonates

Purpose

Infants born with severe tracheal anomalies may not survive beyond the first few hours of life without aggressive cardiopulmonary support and/or emergent airway surgery. The purpose of this study was to review our experience with critically ill neonates supported on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) before tracheal reconstruction.

Methods

A retrospective review of a single institution ECMO registry was conducted. Outcomes of neonates requiring tracheal repair were examined.

Results

Three children with tracheal anomalies (complete tracheal rings [n = 2]; bronchogenic cyst [n = 1]) underwent definitive airway reconstruction. All were placed on ECMO (venovenous [n = 2]; venoarterial [n = 1]) within 24 hours after birth. Tracheoplasties (tracheal resection with end-to-end anastomosis [n = 1]; slide tracheoplasty [n = 1]; carinal resection and reconstruction [n = 1]) were performed at 3.7 ± 2.2 days of life. There were no hemorrhagic or thrombotic complications for an ECMO time of 117.3 ± 60.1 hours. The postoperative durations until extubation and hospital discharge were 12.0 ± 3.2 and 34.3 ± 11.6 days, respectively. All children remain alive and well without cardiopulmonary and neurologic sequelae at a mean follow-up of 4.5 years.

Conclusions

Excellent clinical outcomes can be achieved in neonates born with severe tracheal anomalies using ECMO as a bridge to definitive tracheal reconstruction.     

体外膜肺氧合在肺移植前支持过渡中的应用

目的 探讨体外膜肺氧合(extracorporeal membrane oxygenation,ECMO)在肺移植前支持过渡中应用的可行性和疗效.方法 终末期肺病患者5例,原发病为特发性肺间质纤维化3例,结核性毁损肺1例,淹溺致吸入性肺炎合并急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)1例.药物治疗和呼吸机无法纠正呼吸衰竭,紧急行E...     

体外膜肺氧合在肺移植手术中的应用进展

目前,肺移植手术是诸多类型终末期肺疾病的首选治疗方法,然而肺移植受者常因病程迁延多伴随严重的心肺功能障碍,其中多表现为呼吸衰竭及不同程度的肺动脉高压。体外膜肺氧合（ECMO）是一项体外支持呼吸、循环的有效手段,可过渡性支持危重患者的心肺功能,在肺移植过程中发挥着重要作用。本文就ECMO在肺移植手术中的应用价值、置管策略及管理、疗效评价等方面进行综述,以期加深ECMO在肺移植临床工作中的应用体会。     

体外膜肺氧合在肺移植围手术期的应用30例

目的 总结体外膜肺氧合(ECMO)在肺移植围手术期应用的经验.方法 30例原发性终末期肺病伴继发性肺动脉高压的患者在肺移植术中应用了ECMO,其中单肺移植18例,不横断胸骨序贯式双肺移植12例.在术前使用ECMO维持者2例,分别维持19 d和6 d;其他患者在麻醉完成后开始置ECMO管道.受者在氧合和血流动力学平稳后撒除ECMO.结果所有受者均顺利完成移植.27例于移植术后顺利撤除ECMO;3例术后继续使用ECMO,其中2例分别于术后36 h和7 d时顺利撤除,另1例未能撤除ECMO,术后5 d出现急性肾功能衰竭,术后2周时死于多器官功能衰竭.发生股动、静脉切口感染并发症者2例,股动脉血栓形成(中度)者1例,经治疗后均好转.结论 体外膜肺氧合可应用于伴有原发性或继发性肺动脉高压患者的肺移植手术,其并发症的发生可能与患者病情较重、血流动力学不稳定等因素有关,早期发现和积极有效地治疗可以改善患者的预后.

Abstract：

Objective To explore the perioperative application of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in lung transplantation. Methods Thirty patients with primary and end-stage pulmonary disease accompanied by pulmonary hypertension were subjected to operation under the accessory of ECMO. Eighteen patients received single-lung transplantation and 12 patients bilateral sequential lung transplantation without sternal division in our hospital from November 2005 to July 2009. In 2 patients ECMO was given before operation and maintained for 19 days and 6 days respectively. In the remaining patients, ECMO pipeline was placed after anesthesia. After lung trarnsplantation,ECMO was removed after the recipients' oxygen saturation and hemodynamics were stable. Results In all recipients lung transplantation was successfully done. ECOM was removed in 27recipients after operation, and the rest 3 recipients were supported by ECMO after operation: the ECMO was removed at 36th h and 7th day after lung transplantation in two patients respectively,and another one was supported by ECMO for 5 days after operation and suffered acute kidney failure, and died of multiple organ failure 2 weeks post-transplantation. Two recipients were infected in thigh arteriovenous cut and one suffered femoral artery thrombosis, but all of them got better and discharged from hospital after treatment. Conclusion ECMO can be used for lung transplantation on patients with primary and secondary pulmonary hypertension. The complications may be associated with patients'serious condition and unstable hemodynamics. Early detection and active and effective treatment can improve patient's prognosis.     

Pathophysiology of cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

The treatment of cardiogenic shock using inotropic agents and vascular volume expansion places an added burden on the heart. The resultant increase in cardiac work may cause myocardial ischemia and lead to cardiac arrest. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be used to treat cardiogenic shock. It supports systemic circulation, assures diastolic perfusion of the myocardium, and reduces cardiac workload. The rise in blood pressure associated with restoring systemic circulation afterloads the heart and can cause left atrial hypertension and pulmonary edema. ECMO does not automatically reduce cardiac work, especially in the presence of residual shunts. Left atrial drainage or decompression may be essential in certain patients both to avert pulmonary edema and to reduce cardiac work.     

边缘性供心移植术中采用体外膜肺氧合技术四例

目的 研究体外膜肺氧合(ECMO)技术用于边缘性供心移植的临床效果.方法 4例患者心脏移植时采用ECMO技术,其供心的冷缺血时间长达4.8～8.0 h.术中采用ECMO技术代替体外循环,全流量控制在4.5～5.0 L/min,术后流量降到1/2左右时,改为经典的ECMO心脏辅助管路的连接方式,带ECMO辅助回到重症监护室,随后在合适的时机撤除ECMO的辅助.结果 4例手术均顺利完成,主动脉开放后心脏自动复跳.术中阻断时间为(90±3)min,转机(136±14)min,转流时的主动脉流量为50～70 ml·kg-1·min-1,氧流量为2～4 L/min.4例患者均于术后第2天撤除ECMO,术后ECMO辅助时间为(16±4)h.2例术后出现出血,1例右下肢出现淋巴漏和神经过敏,经过积极治疗后好转,无右心衰竭和三尖瓣明显返流现象.4例患者恢复顺利,出院时左心室舒张末径为37～43 mm,左心室射血分数为56 %～64 %,三尖瓣无返流或仅有轻度返流,心功能均为Ⅱ级.结论 以ECMO代替体外循环技术可以有效地保护供心,有利于经历长时间缺血的供心恢复功能.     

Early detection of neurologic injury and issues of rehabilitation after pediatric cardiac extracorporeal membrane oxygenation

Neurological impairment results in a significant population of children after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for treatment of otherwise intractable circulatory failure. Pre-ECMO hypoxia/ischemia, reperfusion injury, and impaired cerebral perfusion during low output situations possibly aggravated by harmful effects of a pulsatile perfusion are discussed in terms of possible etiological reasons. To develop preventive strategies or to enable curative measure, early detection of neuronal injury seems mandatory. Electroencephalographic surveillance and/or monitoring of evoked potentials and monitoring of cerebral oxygenation by means of near infrared spectroscopy or jugular venous bulb oxygen saturation, as well as measurements of serum neuron specific enolase, S-100 protein, and brain type creatine kinase can be employed clinically. To improve functional outcome following neuronal injury, early rehabilitation seems essential to minimize the resulting effects on physical, cognitive, and emotional development.     

An established extracorporeal membrane oxygenation protocol promotes survival in extreme hypothermia

Background

Historical reports indicate that active rewarming with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) can salvage a patient after hypothermic cardiac arrest. We created a protocol that includes ECMO for extreme hypothermia to guide rewarming of the hypothermic patient.

Methods

A retrospective review of the ECMO rewarming protocol (2004-2006) was conducted.

Results

The active rewarming protocol is a flowchart that is available on our hospital intranet and can be accessed in the trauma bay. A severely hypothermic patient triggers the activation of a TRAUMA ONE-OP ECMO response. During the 2-year period, there were 5 activations of the system and 4 children were placed on ECMO. Two of the 4 were dramatically salvaged and eventually discharged neurologically intact. All 5 children were found pulseless at the scene before transport. The average time from the injury occurrence to arrival was 94 minutes (range, 41-181 minutes). Mean cardiopulmonary resuscitation time was 78.2 minutes (range, 37-152 minutes). The mean core temperature on arrival was 25.4°C (range, 20.4°C-28.6°C). The average time from arrival to ECMO cannulation was 25.5 minutes (range, 16-37 minutes).

Conclusion

A preemptive strategy for the severely hypothermic patient provides an organized approach and prompt response. Expeditious rewarming can make the difference in an opportunity for survival.