High resolution muscle measurements provide insights into equinus contractures in patients with cerebral palsy

Muscle contractures that occur after upper motor neuron lesion are often surgically released or lengthened. However, surgical manipulation of muscle length changes a muscle's sarcomere length (L_s), which can affect force production. To predict effects of surgery, both macro‐ (fascicle length (L_f)) and micro‐ (L_s) level structural measurements are needed. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify both L_s and L_f in patients with cerebral palsy (CP) as well as typically developing (TD) children. Soleus ultrasound images were obtained from children with CP and TD children. L_f was determined and, with the joint in the same position, CP biopsies were obtained and formalin fixed, and L_s was measured by laser diffraction. Since soleus L_s values were not measurable in TD children, TD L_s values were obtained using three independent methods. While average L_f did not differ between groups (CP = 3.6 ± 1.2 cm, TD = 3.5 ± 0.9 cm; p > 0.6), L_s was dramatically longer in children with CP (4.07 ± 0.45 µm vs. TD = 2.17 ± 0.24 µm; p < 0.0001). While L_f values were similar between children with CP and TD children, this was due to highly stretched sarcomeres within the soleus muscle. Surgical manipulation of muscle‐tendon unit length will thus alter muscle sarcomere length and change force generating capacity of the muscle. © 2014 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 33:33–39, 2015.     

Janeway gastrostomy in children with cerebral palsy

Brain damaged children frequently are unable to eat by mouth due to incoordination of tongue and pharyngeal swallowing muscles. The commonly utilized Stamm gastrostomy has several drawbacks relative to the indwelling catheter. A permanent gastrostomy consisting of a mucosal-lined tube flap from the stomach wall, as described by Janeway, is easily constructed using the GIA stapler. This provides a simple, tubeless, and safe way to feed cerebral palsied children unable to eat by mouth.     

Urodynamic findings in children with cerebral palsy

AIM: More than one-third of children with cerebral palsy are expected to present with dysfunctional voiding symptoms. The voiding dysfunction symptoms of the cerebral palsy patients in the present study were documented. METHODS: Of the study group, 16 were girls and 20 were boys (mean age: 8.2 years). Children with cerebral palsy were evaluated with urodynamics consisting of flow rate, filling and voiding cystometry, and electromyography findings of the external urethral sphincter to determine lower urinary tract functions. Treatment protocols were based on the urodynamic findings. Anticholinergic agents to reduce uninhibited contractions and to increase bladder capacity were used as a treatment. Clean intermittent catheterization and behavioral modification were used for incomplete emptying. RESULTS: Of the children, 24 (66.6%) were found to have dysfunctional voiding symptoms. Daytime urinary incontinence (47.2%) and difficulty urinating (44.4%) were the most common symptoms. Urodynamic findings showed that neurogenic detrusor overactivity (involuntary contractions during bladder filling) with a low bladder capacity was present in 17 (47.2%) children, whereas detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia was present in four patients (11%). The mean bladder capacity of patients with a neurogenic bladder was 52.2% of the expected capacity. CONCLUSIONS: The present study concluded that voiding dysfunction was seen in more than half of the children with cerebral palsy, which is a similar result to other published studies. We propose that a rational plan of management of these patients depends on the evaluation of the lower urinary tract dysfunction with urodynamic studies. These children benefit from earlier referral for assessment and treatment.     

Intraoperative opioid dosing in children with and without cerebral palsy

Objective: To describe the differences in intraoperative opioid dosing and associated outcomes in children with and without cerebral palsy (CP). Background: Previous work on children with cognitive impairment has suggested that they receive less intraoperative opioid than children without cognitive impairment. This finding may be due to a common concern that impaired children are hypersensitive to the adverse effects of opioids. Patterns in intraoperative opioid dosing have yet to be studied in children with motor impairment (e.g. CP). Methods: We examined the medical records of pediatric patients with CP who underwent orthopedic surgery over the last decade at our institution, as well as the records of a randomly selected group of pediatric orthopedic patients without CP (non‐CP). Outcome variables were intraoperative opioid dosing, postoperative intensive care unit (ICU) admission, and postoperative oxygen desaturation. We collected demographic, surgical, and medical data for covariate analysis. A stepwise multivariate regression was used for each outcome. Results: Seventy‐one (71) CP and 77 non‐CP charts were included in the study. CP children received significantly less intraoperative opioid (3.26 ± 3.01 μg·kg^?1 fentanyl dose equivalents) than non‐CP children (4.58 ± 3.79 μg·kg^?1) (P = 0.02), and this difference was corroborated by the regression analysis, which significantly associated CP with decreased opioid dosing (P < 0.001). In addition, intraoperative opioid dosing, but not CP, predicted ICU admission (odds ratio: 1.463, 95% CI: 1.042–2.054, P = 0.03) and postoperative oxygen desaturation (odds ratio: 1.174, 95% CI: 1.031–1.338, P = 0.02). Conclusions: Similar to prior research on children with cognitive impairment, a reduction in intraoperative opioid dosing was found in children with CP. Given the discrepant doses of intraoperative opioid between groups, it is unclear whether children with CP are at any greater risk for untoward opioid‐related events.     

Stiff muscle fibers in calf muscles of patients with cerebral palsy lead to high passive muscle stiffness

Cerebral palsy (CP), caused by an injury to the developing brain, can lead to alterations in muscle function. Subsequently, increased muscle stiffness and decreased joint range of motion are often seen in patients with CP. We examined mechanical and biochemical properties of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, which are involved in equinus muscle contracture. Passive mechanical testing of single muscle fibers from gastrocnemius and soleus muscle of patients with CP undergoing surgery for equinus deformity showed a significant increase in fiber stiffness (p < 0.01). Bundles of fibers that included their surrounding connective tissues showed no stiffness difference (p = 0.28).). When in vivo sarcomere lengths were measured and fiber and bundle stiffness compared at these lengths, both fibers and bundles of patients with CP were predicted to be much stiffer in vivo compared to typically developing (TD) individuals. Interestingly, differences in fiber and bundle stiffness were not explained by typical biochemical measures such as titin molecular weight (a giant protein thought to impact fiber stiffness) or collagen content (a proxy for extracellular matrix amount). We suggest that the passive mechanical properties of fibers and bundles are thus poorly understood. © 2014 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 32:1667–1674, 2014.     

Postoperative neuroleptic malignant syndrome that occurred repeatedly in a patient with cerebral palsy

A wide variety of neuroleptic agents are associated with neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). However, the association between general anesthesia and NMS is uncertain. We report a case of a patient with cerebral palsy, who showed signs of NMS only after repeated general anesthesia. The patient received general anesthesia three times in a period of 9 months. The first anesthetic passed uneventfully. NMS symptoms were observed only after the second and third anesthetics. The NMS was effectively treated with IV dantrolene and the patient recovered on both occasions. Inhalational anesthetics, muscle relaxants and fentanyl were suspected as possible triggering factors for NMS. After examining the three anesthesia records and previous publications, we surmized that a nondepolarizing muscle relaxant was associated with NMS in this patient.     

针灸治疗脑瘫患儿语言障碍的分析

目的：探讨针灸治疗脑瘫患儿语言障碍的研究进展。方法选择2013年1~12月我院收治的脑瘫患儿30例,将这30例患儿随机分成两组,每组15例患儿,分别命名为治疗组和对照组,对照组的15例患儿采取常规语言训练,治疗组的15例患者在采取常规语言训练的基础上,进行针灸治疗,观察两组患儿的临床治疗效果。结果治疗组临床治疗的总有效率为96.8%。对照组临床治疗的总有效率为77.4%。治疗组患儿临床治疗的总有效率明显的高于对照组。两组总有效率比较,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。结论针灸治疗脑瘫患儿的语言障碍具有良好的效果,该种方法值得临床推广。     

The incidence of avascular necrosis in children with cerebral palsy after hip containment surgery

Purpose:To establish the rate of avascular necrosis after hip reconstruction surgery in children with cerebral palsy and to identify risk factors that influence the development of avascular necrosis in this population.Methods:An institutional review board–approved retrospective review was conducted on children with cerebral palsy who underwent hip containment surgery at a single institution. Radiographs were evaluated at three time points. The Reimer’s migration percentage, neck shaft angle, epiphyseal shaft angle, acetabular index, center edge angle, and acetabular angle were measured. The presence of avascular necrosis was evaluated and graded by the Bucholz/Ogden and the Kalamchi/MacEwen classification systems. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify risk factors associated with the development of avascular necrosis.Results:A total of 154 children with cerebral palsy underwent hip containment surgery on 223 hips. Twenty-nine children (18.8%) underwent both pelvic and femoral procedures; 36 children (23.4%) had only femoral procedures; 47 children (30.5%) had femoral and soft tissue; and 42 children (27.3%) had pelvic, femoral, and soft tissue procedures. Using the Bucholz and Ogden or the Kalamchi classifications, the rate of avascular necrosis was 24.7% (38/154). Of the variables evaluated, preoperative Reimers was found to be significant predictors of avascular necrosis. The rate of avascular necrosis was 26.7% for Gross Motor Functional Classification System level III, 24.1% for Gross Motor Functional Classification System level IV, and 27.3% for Gross Motor Functional Classification System level V.Conclusion:The overall rate of avascular necrosis in children undergoing hip containment surgery was 26.7%. Together, age at surgery, open reduction, previous surgery, preoperative Reimers, and estimated blood loss contributed to the development of postoperative avascular necrosis; however, only preoperative Reimers significantly contributed to the development of avascular necrosis in children with cerebral palsy undergoing hip containment procedures.     

Effect of caudal block on sevoflurane requirement for lower limb surgery in children with cerebral palsy

Background: Caudal block is a widely used technique for providing perioperative pain management in children. In this randomized double‐blinded study, we evaluated the effects of preoperative caudal block on sevoflurane requirements in children with cerebral palsy (CP) undergoing lower limb surgery while bispectral index (BIS) values were maintained between 45 and 55. Methods: 52 children undergoing Achilles‐tendon lengthening were randomized to receive combined general–caudal anesthesia (caudal group, n = 27) or general anesthesia alone (control group, n = 25). Caudal block was performed with a single dose of 0.7 ml·kg^?1 of 1.0% lidocaine containing epinephrine at 5 μg·ml^?1. The control group received no preoperative caudal block. The endtidal sevoflurane concentrations (ET_sev) were adjusted every minute to maintain the BIS values between 45 and 55. Results: The ET_sev required to maintain the BIS values were not significantly different between the control and caudal groups after induction of anesthesia [2.1 (0.2) vs 2.2 (0.4); P = 0.773]. However, significantly higher ET_sev was observed in the control group before surgical incision [2.0 (0.2) vs 1.8 (0.3); P = 0.013] and during the first 20 min after surgical incision [2.2 (0.3) vs 1.4 (0.3); P < 0.001]. There was no significant difference in BIS values between the control and caudal groups throughout the study period (P > 0.05). In the caudal group, the caudal block was successful in 25 of 27 (92.6%) patients. Conclusions: Caudal block effectively reduced sevoflurane requirements by 36% compared to general anesthesia alone in children with CP undergoing lower limb surgery while BIS values were maintained between 45 and 55.     

Local and distant effects of isolated calf muscle lengthening in children with cerebral palsy and equinus gait

Purpose The purpose was to assess the local and distant effects of isolated calf muscle lengthening in ambulant children with cerebral palsy. Methods The study included fifteen ambulant children with cerebral palsy (nine with diplegia and six with hemiplegia), average age 8.8 years, Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) level I and II. None of the children had previously undergone orthopaedic surgery, apart from one child who had tendo-achilles lengthening (TAL) nine years earlier. All the children underwent pre and post-operative clinical examination and three-dimensional gait analysis (gait analysis). Twenty calf muscle lengthenings were performed, ten TAL and ten gastrocnemius recessions (GR). Results Post-operative ankle kinematics showed significant improvements in all parameters. Ankle power during push-off increased, but only significantly after TAL. Only one limb (5%) was over-corrected. Four limbs (20%) were under-corrected and one of these limbs remained in mild equinus position in stance. There was one recurrent equinus (5%) during the follow-up period of three years (range: 13–55 months). Distant effects on joints and segments were more marked in diplegia than in hemiplegia. Ten of 17 kinematic parameters distant from the ankle joint improved significant post-operatively when the preoperative values were 1SD below or above the mean of the normal material. There was no significant deterioration in any of the measured parameters. Conclusion The improvement in ankle kinematics and kinetics supported the experience of other studies. The distant effects, which have previously not been evaluated in three planes, showed improvement in several kinematic parameters indicating that additional surgery in selected patients could be abandoned or delayed.     

脑瘫患儿家长心理调适及其影响因素研究

目的探讨脑瘫患儿家长积极与消极心理调适现状及其影响因素。方法采用一般资料问卷、心理健康调查表(MHI 38)、中文版创伤后成长问卷(PTGI-C)对122名脑瘫患儿家长进行调查。结果脑瘫患儿家长心理痛苦得分70.75±19.36,心理幸福感得分44.15±13.66,创伤后成长得分68.98±18.72;相关分析显示,创伤后成长与心理痛苦呈负相关,与心理幸福感呈正相关(均P0.01);多元线性回归结果显示,患儿的瘫痪程度是家长心理痛苦的影响因素,解释22.2%的变异量;患儿的瘫痪程度、家长文化程度、创伤后成长是家长心理幸福感的影响因素,共解释42.7%的总变异。结论脑瘫患儿家长心理痛苦与创伤后成长并存,且积极与消极心理调适具有不同的影响因素,医护人员需全面了解脑瘫患儿家长的心理状态以制定针对性的干预措施。     

Neuropathic pain following multilevel surgery in children with cerebral palsy: a case series and review

Six children with cerebral palsy are presented who developed neuropathic pain following multilevel orthopedic surgery. This significant complication is previously unreported. The diagnosis and treatment options are reviewed. Treatment should be kept as simple and noninvasive as possible, and aim to enable physiotherapy to continue. Early recognition and interdisciplinary treatment is important to prevent a downward spiral of increasing pain and decreased function. A good outcome in respect of improved pain and functioning was achieved in five of these six children. It is our opinion that this complication should form part of informed consent for multilevel surgery and that anesthetists should be aware of this complication when managing postoperative pain control.     

Treatment of femur fractures in children with cerebral palsy

Purpose  Children with cerebral palsy may have low bone density stemming from various etiologies and are, thereby, at risk for fractures. The treatment of femur fractures in children with cerebral palsy may need to be tailored to address the management of spastic muscle tone and multiple medical co-morbidities. Methods  Our study is a retrospective review that evaluates the treatment of 47 femur fractures in children with cerebral palsy in both ambulatory and non-ambulatory patients. Results  Thirty-two fractures in non-ambulators were treated non-operatively, 11 of which resulted in malunions and five developed pressure sores. Six fractures in non-ambulators were treated operatively, one of which resulted in a malunion. In ambulators, five fractures were treated non-operatively; one of these fractures lost reduction after 2 weeks and required surgical intervention. One of four fractures in ambulators treated operatively developed a malunion. Conclusion  Our study results suggest that femur fractures in children with cerebral palsy can be treated non-operatively; however, because of the high risk of malunion in this patient population, fracture alignment needs to be followed closely during healing. Careful attention during casting is necessary to prevent pressure sores. Strong consideration should be given to initial operative treatment in ambulatory patients in order to preserve function.     

1090例脑性瘫痪外科手术治疗统计分析

目的分析我国脑性瘫痪（cerebralpalsy,CP）的病因、手术年龄分布、临床特征和外科治疗方法,为了解我国CP发病情况、病情特点、外科治疗状况等提供大样本的临床参考资料。方法回顾性分析1990年9月至2007年12月行外科手术治疗的CP患者1090例,采用SPSSl2软件对资料进行统计学分析。结果1090例脑瘫患者中,男760例,女330例;手术时年龄3～41岁,其中3～5岁167例,6～10岁356例,11—15岁304例,16～25岁218例,26岁以上45例;CP病因中早产占29％、难产窒息占23．9％,明显高于出生后的其他原因,有16％不确定发病原因;CP分型中双下肢痉挛型最多占41％,其次是偏瘫痉挛型25．5％和四肢瘫痉挛型12．1％;20．09％合并流涎,4．59％合并癫痫;术前徒手跛行53％,扶物站立行走31．5％,不能站立行走者15．5％;51．2％智力低于正常,重度智力障碍者占4．1％;语言表达能力低于正常者占53．2％,完全失语占2．8％。1090例cP共实施手术2885术次,其中下肢矫形手术为2535术次,上肢矫形手术59术次,颈总动脉外膜交感神经网剥脱切除术269术次,选择性脊神经后根切断术（selective posterior rhizotomy,SPR）22术次。结论早产、难产和窒息为痉挛型CP发生的最常见原因。我国存在大量未能在学龄前实施矫形手术的CP患者,甚至到成年期仍未接受正确的手术治疗,致使下肢畸形发展到严重程度,说明对CP进行综合外科治疗的专科医师十分缺乏。CP是一个综合征,矫形手术主要适用于痉挛型。根据患者的年龄、类型和病情特点,选择相应的手术方法;病情复杂者,优化组合不同的手术方法,术后配合合理的康复,以提高外科治疗效果。     

Distal rectus femoris surgery in children with cerebral palsy: results of a Delphi consensus project

PurposeThe purpose of this study was for an international panel of experts to establish consensus indications for distal rectus femoris surgery in children with cerebral palsy (CP) using a modified Delphi method.MethodsThe panel used a five-level Likert scale to record agreement or disagreement with 33 statements regarding distal rectus femoris surgery. The panel responded to statements regarding general characteristics, clinical indications, computerized gait data, intraoperative techniques and outcome measures. Consensus was defined as at least 80% of responses being in the highest or lowest two of the five Likert ratings, and general agreement as 60% to 79% falling into the highest or lowest two ratings. There was no agreement if neither threshold was reached.ResultsConsensus or general agreement was reached for 17 of 33 statements (52%). There was general consensus that distal rectus femoris surgery is better for stiff knee gait than is proximal rectus femoris release. There was no consensus about whether the results of distal rectus femoris release were comparable to those following distal rectus femoris transfer. Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) level was an important factor for the panel, with the best outcomes expected in children functioning at GMFCS levels I and II. The panel also reached consensus that they do distal rectus femoris surgery less frequently than earlier in their careers, in large part reflecting the narrowing of indications for this surgery over the last decade.ConclusionThis study can help paediatric orthopaedic surgeons optimize decision-making for, and outcomes of, distal rectus femoris surgery in children with CP.Level of evidenceV     

Factors influencing metacarpal bone mineral density in adults with cerebral palsy

Several studies have examined bone mineral density (BMD) and related factors in children with cerebral palsy, but there are no such studies of adults with cerebral palsy. We evaluated BMD in 123 institutionalized adults (51 men aged 21–41 years and 72 premenopausal women aged 24–46 years) with cerebral palsy, and examined the associations of BMD with mobility level, use of anticonvulsant drugs, and abnormal calcium metabolism status. Hand radiographs were used to measure BMD of the second metacarpal bone (mBMD). Body weight (kg), height (m), and body mass index (BMI) were recorded. Serum calcium, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase were measured. Abnormal calcium metabolism, defined as calcium 8.5mg/dl, phosphate 2.6mg/dl, or alkaline phosphatase 260U/l, was identified in 28% of the men and 31% of the women. Multiple regression analysis showed that the use of anticonvulsant drugs was significantly associated with lower mBMD in both sexes. Higher alkaline phosphatase level was significantly associated with lower mBMD in men. Mobility level (ambulation) was significantly associated with higher mBMD in women. Neither age nor BMI correlated with mBMD. Our findings indicated poor bone health status in adults with cerebral palsy and the existence of several factors that could affect bone metabolism in these patients.     

对脑瘫患儿实施社区引导式康复训练的实践

目的提高脑瘫患儿康复训练效果。方法成立由儿科康复治疗师、社区护士和家长组成的社区引导式康复训练指导小组,培训社区护士和家长考试合格后即对86例脑瘫患儿进行社区引导式康复训练,包括异常姿势控制训练、语言功能训练、运动功能训练及认知功能训练。结果训练后患儿的Gesell测评发育障碍程度及运动功能、语言交流、异常姿势矫正、认知功能实现目标评分显著优于训练前(均P<0.01)。结论社区引导式康复训练能促进患儿康复。     

引导式喂养管理对脑瘫患儿喂养困难的影响

目的 探讨引导式喂养管理对改善脑瘫患儿喂养困难和营养状况的效果。方法将40例喂养困难的脑瘫患儿按照病区分为观察组和对照组各20例。对照组实施常规喂养管理,观察组实施引导式喂养管理。比较两组干预前及干预12周后患儿营养风险、喂养困难评分、身高别体质量值变化。结果干预后观察组的喂养困难评分显著低于对照组,营养状况和身高别体质量值改善显著优于对照组(P<0.05,P<0.01)。结论引导式喂养管理可改善脑瘫患儿喂养困难程度,提高照护者喂养效率,降低患儿营养不良风险,进而改善患儿营养状况。