Flap pedicle vena comitant as a vein graft donor source

A vena comitant segment harvested from a flap's pedicle can be used as an interpositional vein graft in selected microvascular cases. When a vascular pedicle includes paired venae comitantes, one of these can prove suitable for use as a vein graft while still allowing for venous outflow of the flap. An additional operative site and procedure to harvest a vein graft can be avoided if a vena comitant segment can be used. We present eight cases in which pedicle vena comitant segments were used as interpositional vein grafts. In six cases, vena comitant grafts were used to supercharge or augment venous outflow in transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flaps used for breast reconstruction. A vena comitant graft was used to revise the venous anastomosis in one deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap. The arterial anastomosis was revised with a vena comitant graft in a gracilis muscle free flap. Our experience demonstrates the viability and utility of using the flap pedicle's vena comitant as a source of vein graft in selected cases.     

Fail-safe drainage procedure in free radial forearm flap transfer

The reliability of the free radial forearm flap is widely accepted; however, postoperative venous thrombosis still occurs occasionally. Thus, establishment of a fail-safe drainage system has been a challenging frontier. A total of 405 consecutive free radial forearm flap transfers, carried out in the authors' department between 1987 to 2002, were reviewed retrospectively. The most reliable drainage method comprised the dual flap drainage veins of the superficial venous system (the cutaneous vein) and the deep system (the radial vena comitans), including their connecting cubital perforating vein, and the two neck recipient veins of the internal jugular and the external jugular venous systems. None of the flaps transferred by this method incurred venous failure, regardless of the surgeons conducting the operation. This study on the venous network in drainage systems of the free radial forearm flap demonstrated that the described method functions in a self-sustaining manner, and contributes to protection against venous catastrophe.     

肘下动脉穿支蒂前臂外侧皮神经营养血管皮瓣的解剖基础

目的 为肘下动脉穿支蒂前臂外侧皮神经营养血管皮瓣修复肘部软组织缺损提供解剖学基础.方法在30侧动脉内灌注红色乳胶的成人上肢标本上解剖观查:①前臂外侧皮神经的走行与分布;②肘下动脉与前臂外侧皮神经营养血管间吻合关系.另在1侧新鲜标本上进行摹拟手术设计.结果①前臂外侧皮神经主干行于前臂桡侧,分布于前臂外侧1/3区域;②营养血管为多节段、多源性,其中肘下动脉的位置相对恒定,在头静脉与深静脉系统的交通支形成的倒"V"状顶点到达皮肤,并分出众多的细小血管与前臂外侧皮神经的神经旁和神经干血管链的分支密切吻合.结论 可形成肘下动脉穿支蒂前臂外侧皮神经营养血管皮瓣顺行转位修复肘部软组织缺损.

Abstract：

Objective To provide anatomical basis for lateral antebrachial neurocutaneous flap pedi-cled with inferior cubital artery perforator in repairing tissue defects around elbow joint. Methods Thirty embalmed upper limbs of adult cadavers perfused with red latex were used for this study, and followings were observed:①The course and distribution of lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve; ②Anastomoses between inferior cubital artery and nutrient vessels of lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve. Mimic operation was performed on other side of fresh specimen. Results ①The main trunk of lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve (LACN) lined in the radial forearm and distributed in the 1/3 region of lateral forearm. ①The nutritional vessels of the flap were plurisegmental and polyphyletic. The inferior cubital artery which was relatively constant reached to skin through "V"-shaped peak formed by communicating branches of cephalic vein and deep venous system. They also gave off large number of small veins, which closely aligned with perineural branches and neural stem vascular chain of lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve. Conclusion The lateral antebrachial neurocutaneos flap pedicled with inferior cubital artery perforator can be formed to repaire tissue defects around elbow joint.     

The radial forearm flap without fascia and other refinements

The radial forearm flap is generally classified as a fasciocutaneous flap. The skin of the forearm is, however, supplied by branches from the radial artery which pierce the fascia of the forearm to course and branch subcutaneously. We have used the flap as a skin flap in 300 cases over 11 years. It is not necessary to take the fascia with the flap. Two other refinements of the forearm flap, also used over the past 11 years, are described. The venous drainage of the flap is simplified by utilising the usual anatomical confluence of deep and superficial veins at the elbow. Secondly, draping a large loop of pedicle in the neck during intraoral reconstruction enables a larger calibre vein to be used for the anastomosis, thus increasing its reliability.     

Superiority of end-to-side anastomosis with the internal jugular vein: the experience of 80 cases in head and neck microsurgical reconstruction.

The authors report their experience with 80 head and neck reconstructions using free-tissue transfer in which end-to-side anastomosis with the internal jugular vein was carried out. An end-to-side anastomosis with the internal jugular vein has the following advantages. Firstly, the technique overcomes the problems of vessel size discrepancy. It is effectively applied for free jejunal transfer or combined flap transfer based on a single vascular pedicle, of which the size of the proximal end of the drainage vein is very large. Secondly, the internal jugular vein has wide capacity to be the recipient of two or more end-to-side anastomoses. It is effectively used for free radial forearm or rectus abdominis myocutaneous flaps in which two or more drainage veins can be included. Thirdly, the respiratory venous pump effect may act directly on the venous drainage of the transferred flap through the internal jugular vein. In our institution, these advantages have made it the technique of choice in head and neck reconstructive microsurgery.     

Free transfer of the radial forearm flap with preservation of the radial artery

One of the main disadvantages of the radial forearm flap is the sacrifice of a major artery. To overcome this drawback the authors describe a technique of free transfer of the flap with preservation of the radial artery. The flap is elevated as a distal row perforator-based fasciocutaneous flap with a very short segment of the radial artery included in the inverted-T-shaped arterial pedicle. The venous outflow of the flap is provided by the cephalic vein, with accompanying veins of the radial artery left behind. Although the donor radial artery is repaired primarily, the flap is transferred to reconstruct a soft-tissue defect resulting from the release of a neck contracture after radiotherapy in a 42-year-old patient who had previous excision of a mandibular osteosarcoma. The arterial anastomosis was performed end to end between the superior thyroid artery and one limb of the arterial pedicle, with the other limb ligated. The venous anastomosis was performed end to end between the cephalic vein and the external jugular vein. The flap survived completely and a satisfactory result was obtained. The radial artery is demonstrated to be patent long after surgery, both with Allen's test and with a Doppler examination. Considering the possible sequelae of the sacrifice of the radial artery, this technique is obviously advantageous to such patients, even with a nonsatisfactory preoperative Allen's test. This perforator-based radial forearm flap is very easy to raise and to transfer, with anastomoses of large-diameter vessels.     

Anatomic study of distally based pedicle compound flaps with nutrient vessels of the cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm

The purpose of this study was to describe the anatomic basis for a distally based neurovenovascular pedicle compound flap, with nutrient vessels of the cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm. In this study, the origins, branches, and anastomoses of nutrient vessels of the cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm and their relationships with the blood supply of adjacent muscle, bone, and skin were assessed in 96 adult cadavers by perfusion of red gelatin into the superior limb arteries. The results showed that the nutrient vessels of cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm were found to have multiple origins, consisting of six longitudinal vascular plexuses and one transverse vascular plexus of the forearm, as follows: 1) the anterior-lateral vascular plexus from cutaneous branches of the radial artery; 2) the anterior-medialis vascular plexus from cutaneous branches of the ulnar artery; 3) the dorso-lateral vascular plexus from radial osteal and cutaneous branches; 4) the dorso-medialis vascular plexus from ulnar osteal and cutaneous branches; 5) the radial vascular plexus from osteal and cutaneous branches of the radial artery, cutaneous branches of the radial artery in the upper wrist, recurrent branches of the styloid process of the radius, and the radialis vascular plexus of cutaneous branches of the tabatière anatomique (anatomical snuffbox); and 6) the ulnar lateral vascular plexus from cutaneous branches of the ulnar artery in the upper wrist and osteal and cutaneous branches. The transverse vascular plexus is composed of dorsal branches of the ulnar and radial arteries. These perforating branches give fascial branches, cutaneous branches, periosteal branches, and nutrient vessels of cutaneous nerves and superficial veins. These results suggest that nutrient vessels of the cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm have the same origins as those of the nutrient vessels of adjacent muscles, bones, and skin of the forearm, which can be designated as five types of distally based pedicle flaps with nutrient vessels of cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm, whose rotation point is at the wrist joint. This flap can be applied to repair tissues of distal parts of the hand.     

The distally-based radial forearm free flap with valvulotomy of the cephalic vein; a preliminary report

The radial forearm free flap is widely used in microsurgical reconstruction where a thin, hairless flap is required. While the radial artery may be based either proximally or distally, the venous drainage is generally proximally based in order to provide normal flow through the valves. We have utilised this flap in two patients, based distally on both the radial artery and cephalic vein by removing the valves of the cephalic vein. This technique has been employed widely in peripheral vascular surgery of the lower limb and is called the "in-situ" technique. We have found it to be efficacious in taking a proximal skin paddle, which decreases donor site morbidity and allows for a long vascular pedicle. This paper reports on these two patients and describes the technique of valvulotomy of the cephalic vein.     

The basilic vein: an alternative drainage of DIEP flap in severe venous congestion

The deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap has become a major advance in autologous breast reconstruction, offering all the advantages of free TRAM flap with less donor-site morbidity and postoperative pain. The major drawback threatening the DIEP flap procedure is venous congestion, with potential partial or complete flap loss. Many authors reported different surgical tips aiming to solve this setback, including secondary anastomosis of deep inferior superficial epigastric vein with alternative venous outflow vessels. We present a case report of a DIEP flap salvaged by an alternative venous anastomosis, after comitant veins of the primary anastomosis widely thrombosed a few hours postoperatively. A venous bypass using ipsilateral basilica vein and superficial inferior epigastric vein was fashioned.     

Importance of the deep vein in the drainage of a radial forearm flap: a haemodynamic study.

The free radial forearm flap has two drainage veins, the cutaneous and the deep, but no established consensus has been reached on the selection of the drainage pedicle. In our study, the flow volumes of the veins were examined by colour Doppler ultrasonography after 20 forearm flaps had been raised. The volume through the deep vein was significantly higher than that through the cutaneous vein (p < 0.01). In comparing the total flow (both veins open), the flow rate through the deep vein alone (cutaneous vein occluded) was over 80% in 13 cases, 60%-80% in seven, and under 60% in none; that through the cutaneous vein alone (deep vein occluded) was 60%-80% in eight, 40%-60% in eight, under 40% in four, and over 80% in none. Our results show the importance of the deep vein, as indicated by its high drainage capacity from the early stages of flap transfer.     

Use of the radial forearm free tissue flap to treat persistent stricture after esophagogastrectomy.

BACKGROUND: Persistent stricturing or anastomotic leakage at the cervical esophagogastric anastomosis can be a troublesome complication of gastric pull-up procedures. When the stricture is the result of ischemia of the stomach, the strictures are long and often not responsive to dilatation and require large operations such as jejunal interposition or replacement with colonic pull-up. In this report we describe the use of a radial forearm flap to patch strictures. METHODS: The radial forearm flap is a fascia cutaneous flap taken from the forearm and based on the radial artery and its venae comitantes. The advantages of this flap are that it is thin and pliable, conforms easily, has excellent reliability due to the size of the feeding vessels, and has a relatively long pedicle. The vascular anastomosis can be made to several arteries and veins within the neck. The epithelial component can be made in sizes up to 10 by 20 cm. RESULTS: We have used the radial forearm flap to patch strictures in 6 patients with persistent complex strictures in the cervical region after esophagectomy. Results were excellent in 4 patients (able to eat liquids and solids without problems) and good in 1 patient (liquids okay, some problem with solids), and 1 patient died postoperatively. Follow-up is 4 months to 7 years. CONCLUSIONS: The radial forearm flap is an excellent option for handling persistent stricture after esophagogastrectomy. In many instances, this flap can be used in lieu of a jejunal interposition flap and obviates a laparotomy to harvest jejunum. The flap fits easily into the neck and conforms to the space.     

Cephalic Vein-Pedicled Radial Forearm Semi-free Flap: An Alternative When no Suitable Vein in Recipient Site for Free Forearm Flap

The risk of venous thrombosis is the main factor of free forearm flap necrosis. In some cases there is no suitable vein at recipient site to provide venous return of the free flap. In this report, two cephalic vein-pedicled radial forearm semi-free flaps were used as an alternative to resurface soft tissue defects in submaxilla and anterior cervical area. The two flaps survived uneventfully. The cephalic vein-pedicled radial forearm semi-free flap could be harvested with a long cephalic vein pedicle, and could be an alternative when there was no suitable or healthy recipient veins at recipient site.     

Short-term postoperative flow changes after free radial forearm flap transfer: possible cause of vascular occlusion

The risk for free flap thrombosis is greatly influenced by blood flow. Postoperative hemodynamic changes in vascular pedicles of the microvascular skin flap have not been reported, however. This study focuses on the intraoperative and postoperative changes in the flow volume in the vascular pedicles of the free forearm flap examined by color Doppler ultrasonography. The arterial flow volume increased continuously until day 7, compared with which, the volume after flap elevation was 36%. On day 1, it reached only 52%. In the venous pedicle, the flow volume through the cutaneous vein was only 37% compared with that through the radial vena comitans after flap elevation, whereas the volume through both veins was equal on day 7. Drastic changes in the flow explain the possible vascular occlusion during the early postoperative period in the free forearm flap transfer.     

The osteocutaneous pedicle forearm flap

Two patients treated by an osteocutaneous radial island flap with retrograde blood flow are described. Rotation of the flap and its distal vascular pedicle by nearly 180 degrees caused no impairment of the arterial flow, but it may interfere with the venous return through the radial veins, as observed in one of our cases. Therefore, it is safer to include in the skin flap an additional vein, suturing it to a superficial vein in the recipient zone, thus ensuring normal venous flow to the flap as well. The purpose of this paper is to present two patients treated by the use of an osteocutaneous radial artery forearm flap.     

Reverse radial forearm flap as a source of soft tissue and blood supply for thumb reconstruction

Soft-tissue deficiency is sometimes a major problem in thumb reconstructive cases with toe-to-thumb transfer. In the patient presented, a reverse radial forearm flap was used to provide a vascular pedicle for anastomosis with the second toe vessels. The flap also provided soft-tissue coverage for the metatarsal bone of the transferred toe. The radial artery and concomitant vein were used for the dorsalis pedis artery and vein anastomosis. The skin island of the forearm flap was wrapped around the transferred metatarsal bone. Using this technique, two limiting problems in toe-to-hand transfers were solved at the same time. In the crushed hand, sometimes it is not possible to find enough soft tissue and a good vascular pedicle for a new thumb, and this option seems to be a reasonable choice.     

Use of a mechanical leech in a reverse-flow radial forearm flap: case report

The reverse-flow radial forearm flap provides excellent coverage for distal upper-limb defects. It is simply raised and does not require microsurgical skills. However, since its vascular pedicle is reversed, its venous outflow can be significantly diminished because of the venous valves. The authors present the case of a 16-year-old patient with a sagittal amputation of the radial aspect of the right thumb, who manifested at the time of surgery marked venous engorgement of a reverse-flow radial forearm flap. This was successfully relieved by the placement of a mechanical leech consisting of a Silastic rubber catheter--of the kind used to gain central vascular access in newborns--introduced in the lumen of the reversed vein at the extremity of the flap. This permitted intermittent evacuation of blood from the flap postoperatively, contributing to the success of this procedure. The technique used is detailed and pertinent literature is reviewed.     

Microsurgical anatomy of the lateral skin flap of the leg

The blood supply, venous drainage, and innervation of the lateral skin flap of the leg were studied in 52 fresh specimens by dissection, angiography, and selected injection of cutaneous arteries with india ink. This flap has a long vascular pedicle that contains the peroneal artery and vein and their branches. The diameter of the peroneal artery is about 3.7 mm. There are 4 to 7 cutaneous branches that penetrate the posterior intermuscular septum and widely anastomose with each other in the subcutaneous tissue. The skin area supplied by the peroneal artery measures approximately 32 X 15 cm. There are 2 sets of veins in the flap: (1) 2 deep veins, the peroneal veins, are about 4 mm in diameter, and (2) a superficial vein, the small saphenous vein, is about 3.3 mm in diameter. The cutaneous nerve is the lateral sural cutaneous nerve. This new lateral skin flap of the leg may be used either as a free flap or as a cutaneous flap and has been proven successful clinically.     

”︁Impossible„ reversed radial forearm free flap in microsurgical reconstruction

The reversed radial forearm free flap is described and patient histories are presented to illustrate its unique reconstructive versatility. The valvular orientation of the deep and superficial forearm veins should theoretically oppose the reversed flow in this flap, but the venous flow is not compromised. In comparison to the anterograde forearm free flap the vascular pedicle is longer and the donor defect generates less functional and cosmetic complications because it is located on the proximal forearm. In a review of the literature anatomical details of the venous drainage are presented. Different opinions on reverse flow in forearm flaps are discussed and a new theory is proposed. © 1993 Wiley-Liss Inc.     

Venous drainage system of the transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flap

The transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap has been widely used for reconstruction of the breast. Partial loss of the flap is still a problem, however, and venous congestion may cause partial necrosis of the flap. There are few studies of the venous anatomy of the TRAM flap that compares with that of the arterial system, so the aim of this study was to investigate the venous anatomy of the TRAM flap and assess its drainage pathway using venography. A mixture of barium and gelatin were injected through the cutaneous veins such as the superficial inferior epigastric vein (SIEV), the superficial circumflex iliac vein (SCIV), or the perforating branch of the deep inferior epigastric vein (DIEV) in 11 hemiTRAM flaps. Venograms of TRAM flaps were taken, and the venous anatomy evaluated. The study showed that it consisted of the dominant superficial venous system, the SIEV and SCIV, and the secondary deep venous system, and the perforating vein of DIEV (DIEV perforator). In addition, we saw the large communicating veins between the SIEV and DIEV perforator near the umbilicus. We think that these communicating veins, which are considered as the DIEV perforators between the superficial and deep venous system, are an important venous drainage pathway after the TRAM flap has been raised.     

桡动脉穿支蒂岛状皮瓣修复腕及前臂创面

目的 探讨桡动脉穿支蒂岛状皮瓣的解剖以及修复腕及前臂创面的手术方法和临床疗效.方法 以桡动脉搏动及体表投影为中心,采用多普勒血管仪探测桡动脉穿支的部位,以靠近缺损创面部的皮支作为血管蒂及旋转点,根据缺损创面大小、形状设计皮瓣,修复腕及前臂创面12例.结果 术后12例皮瓣中有2例出现静脉危象,经拆除部分缝线后存活,创面愈合,其余10例皮瓣均顺利存活.随访时间3～18个月,皮瓣质地软,外形及功能满意.结论 桡动脉穿支在桡骨茎突近端2.0cm、4.0～ 5.0 cm、7.0cm处较恒定,以此为蒂的岛状皮瓣血供可靠,操作简单,不损伤主干血管,修复后外形好,是修复腕及前臂皮肤软组织缺损的有效方法之一.