上海市传染性非典型肺炎流行病学特征分析

[目的 ]　分析上海市 2 0 0 3年传染性非典型肺炎 (SARS)流行病学特征 ,初步评价防制效果。　 [方法 ]　采用统一的流行病学调查表对病例进行流行病学调查 ,描述和分析流行病学、病原学等相关资料和控制措施。　 [结果 ]　2 0 0 3年 3月下旬至 5月上旬 ,19个区县有 5个区报告SARS病例共 8例 ,发病率为 0 .0 5 / 10万 ,其中 5例由疑似转为临床病人 ,发病主要集中在 4月份 ,均为 2 0岁以上成年人。除 1例为接触感染 ,其余 7例均为非本地感染病人。经治疗 6例治愈出院 ,2例死亡 (为 60岁以上者 )。病人密切接触者 3 3 3人中发生 1例病人 ,续发病率为 0 .3 %。医务人员中无一人感染 ,家庭和社区内未发生集聚性发病。　 [结论 ]　上海市SARS病人以非本地感染为主 ,续发病率低 ,采取及时有效地隔离病人 ,对密切接触者医学观察和采取个人防护措施 ,是切断传播链的有效途径     

广州市医务人员传染性非典型肺炎流行情况及预防控制效果分析

目的 分析广州市医务人员传染性生非典型肺炎(SARS)流行的基本特征，探讨流行因素，评价防制措施，为医疗卫生单位开展SARS收治及预防控制工作提供指导。方法 采用统一调查表对医务人员SARS患进行流行病学调查，采用定性生研究方法对医院SARS流行影响因素、预防控制措施及其效果进行调查，资料采用描述性流行病学方法分析。结果 广州市医务人员首例SARS患发病时间为2003年1月13日，截止5月5日共有29家医疗卫生单位报告医护人员发病280例，占全市总病例数的26．07％。医务人员发病高峰在2月上、中旬，共有167例，占医务人员发病总数的59．64％，呈明显聚集性。4月后病例为零星散发。病例主要集中在1月下旬前开始收治SARS患(对SARS尚缺乏认识的时期)的6家医院，占总病例数的73．2％(2c15／280)。调查180例医务人员SARS患中92．22％直接参与过SARS患的救治工作。采取定点收治患、加强医院病区通风、加强医护人员自身的个人防护等综合措施后，2月下旬开始，医务人员的新发SARS病例明显减少。结论 控制SARS在医务人员中流行的关键措施是：(1)要对出现SARS症状的患高度警惕，及时诊断并隔离患；(2)严格按照操作规范做好个人防护措施；(3)收治区要合理布局，严格区分污染区、半污染区和清洁区；(4)加强病区通风换气；(5)严格按照有关指引做好污染物、空气及环境的消毒工作。     

如何预防医务人员COVID-19感染：来自中国武汉的经验

 在新型冠状病毒肺炎（COVID-19）大流行的背景下,全球已有数以千计的医务人员感染新型冠状病毒（SARS-CoV-2）,并有人因此失去生命。在疫情早期,中国发生了医务人员感染。由于对SARS-CoV-2的特点认识有限,湖北有3,000多名医务人员在疫情暴发初期感染了SARS-CoV-2。由于当地医院医务人员工作超负荷,超过4.2万名医务人员（包括军队医务人员）,从全国各地被派往湖北。在疫情最严重的时期,中国有十分之一的重症监护医生在武汉工作。在中国抗击COVID-19的过程中,虽然在疫情早期发生了一定数量的医务人员感染SARS-CoV-2,但通过及时采取预防措施,包括快速诊断,及时对患者进行隔离,强调医务人员的安全,加强医务人员基本防护知识培训和统一管理等有效防护措施,国家援鄂医疗队42,632名队员最终未报告感染,并且当地医院医务人员感染病例显著减少,说明医务人员院内感染COVID-19是完全可以预防的。本文旨在阐述中国武汉疫情期间,如何通过采取有效措施预防医务人员感染SARS-CoV-2。     

广东省严重急性呼吸综合征的流行与控制

目的 分析广东省2003年严重急性呼吸综合征(severe acute respirstory syndrome,SARS)流行特征,探讨其危险因素,为有效控制该病的流行提供对策、依据与参考。方法 用描述流行病学方法对SARS流行病学及控制措施等相关资料进行描述与分析。结果 目前追溯到首例发病日期为2002年11月16日,家庭聚集发病5例;2003年1月2日,河源市为全国最早正式报告SARS病例的城市。至2003年6月15日止,广东省共有15个地级市报告SARS病例1511例,全省报告发病率为1．77／10万,主要集中在珠江三角洲的5个城市(佛山、广州、深圳、中山及江门),占病例总数的95．97％,广州市报告病例最多,占病例总数的85．81％;报告死亡数为58例,报告死亡率为0．07／10万,病死率为3．84％。发病高峰出现在1月28日至2月26日(占病例总数的50．69％),单日发病例数最多的为2月8日,共55例。发病年龄主要集中在青壮年(20—49岁),占65．86％。发病率随着年龄的增大而升高。有明显的医院和家庭聚集现象,医务人员的聚集性病例占病例总数的19．38％,家庭聚集性病例占12．04％。早期135例无明确接触史的社区散发患者中,从事与动物相关职业者11例,占8．14％。潜伏期为1—12d,中位数为4．5d。实行严格的SARS疫情监测报告制度,落实预防控制SARS的各项指引,切断SARS从患者到健康人的传播链,强化医院感染控制的技术指导和落实,做好消毒和个人防护工作是主要的控制措施。结论 切断SARS从患者到健康人的传播链是控制SARS流行的关键;重点控制医院内感染的发生;一些研究结果支持SARS病原可能来源于动物的假设。     

广东省13家医院医护人员严重急性呼吸综合征医院内感染情况

目的　分析收治严重急性呼吸综合征 (SARS)患者重点医院医护人员发生SARS院内感染的因素 ,评价干预措施。方法　通过对 13家重点医院收治SARS患者的数量及病情、医护人员SARS的发病率、医院性质、病区 (科室 )环境及隔离措施调查 ,分析医护人员发生SARS院内感染的原因。结果　 13家医院共收治SARS患者 84 1例 ,参加诊治工作的 2 36 5名医护人员中 2 85人发病。综合性医院、收治危重患者较多的医院、医护人员个人防护不到位的医院医护人员发病率较高 (93/2 85 ,32 .6 3% ) ;独立病房收治SARS患者的医院、具有感染科或隔离病区 (包括临时开设的隔离病区 )的医院医护人员发病率较低。结论　收治SARS患者的病情、医院性质、病区 (科室 )环境、个人防护状况是医护人员感染SARS的危险因素     

Monitoring the severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemic and assessing effectiveness of interventions in Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the infection curve of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) using the back projection method and to assess the effectiveness of interventions. DESIGN: Statistical method. DATA: The daily reported number of SARS and interventions taken by Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) up to 24 June 2003 are used. METHOD: To use a back projection technique to construct the infection curve of SARS in Hong Kong. The estimated epidemic curve is studied to identify the major events and to assess the effectiveness of interventions over the course of the epidemic. RESULTS: The SARS infection curve in Hong Kong is constructed for the period 1 March 2003 to 24 June 2003. Some interventions seem to be effective while others apparently have little or no effect. The infections among the medical and health workers are high. CONCLUSIONS: Quarantine of the close contacts of confirmed and suspected SARS cases seems to be the most effective intervention against spread of SARS in the community. Thorough disinfection of the infected area against environmental hazards is helpful. Infections within hospitals can be reduced by better isolation measures and protective equipments.     

Modelling potential responses to severe acute respiratory syndrome in Japan: the role of initial attack size, precaution, and quarantine

BACKGROUND: There has been an outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) worldwide. With the use of detailed epidemiological data from other countries, this article describes the possible reason for the SARS epidemic not appearing in Japan, and simulates the impact of different control strategies that can break the transmission cycle of SARS associated coronavirus. METHOD: Mathematical modelling is used for predicting the epidemiological outcome and simultaneously for evaluating the effect of interventions on SARS. The study estimates the initial attack size that would result in failed invasion. Three different interventions have been incorporated into the public health response policies; precautionary public health measures, isolation of infected people, and quarantine of exposed humans. RESULTS: The maximum number of humans newly infected could be roughly estimated on the basis of the initial attack size, using simple formulas. It is seen that the introduction of only a few cases into certain communities would not lead easily to an epidemic. The possible trajectories of SARS epidemic depend on the levels of public health interventions as quarantine and precautionary public health measures greatly affected the transmissibility of the disease. It is shown that there exist threshold levels of interventions at which the SARS epidemic settles down. CONCLUSION: Initial attack size is one of the determinants of whether SARS can successfully invade the community or not. Two of the most effective policy procedures to prevent new infections would be to apply stringent precautionary measures and to impose quicker and more effective quarantine of the exposed populace.     

The impact of contact structure on infectious disease control: influenza and antiviral agents

Planning adequate public health responses against emerging infectious diseases requires predictive tools to evaluate the impact of candidate intervention strategies. With current interest in pandemic influenza very high, modelling approaches have suggested antiviral treatment combined with targeted prophylaxis as an effective first-line intervention against an emerging influenza pandemic. To investigate how the effectiveness of such interventions depends on contact structure, we simulate the effects in networks with variable degree distributions. The infection attack rate can increase if the number of contacts per person is heterogeneous, implying the existence of high-degree individuals who are potential super-spreaders. The effectiveness of a socially targeted intervention suffers from heterogeneous contact patterns and depends on whether infection is predominantly transmitted to close or casual contacts. Our findings imply that the various contact networks' degree distributions as well as the allocation of contagiousness between close and casual contacts should be examined to identify appropriate strategies of disease control measures.     

Facing the threat of influenza pandemic - roles of and implications to general practitioners

The 2009 pandemic of H1N1 influenza, compounded with seasonal influenza, posed a global challenge. Despite the announcement of post-pandemic period on 10 August 2010 by theWHO, H1N1 (2009) virus would continue to circulate as a seasonal virus for some years and national health authorities should remain vigilant due to unpredictable behaviour of the virus. Majority of the world population is living in countries with inadequate resources to purchase vaccines and stockpile antiviral drugs. Basic hygienic measures such as wearing face masks and the hygienic practice of hand washing could reduce the spread of the respiratory viruses. However, the imminent issue is translating these measures into day-to-day practice. The experience from Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in Hong Kong has shown that general practitioners (GPs) were willing to discharge their duties despite risks of getting infected themselves. SARS event has highlighted the inadequate interface between primary and secondary care and valuable health care resources were thus inappropriately matched to community needs.     

天津市传染性非典型肺炎流行特点及主要控制措施效果评价

目的：分析天津市传染性非典型肺炎[严重急性呼吸综合征(SARS)]流行病学特征，对主要控制措施的效果进行初步评价。方法：采用自行设计的病例报告表，全市统一的流行病学个案调查表及病例接触者、密切接触者树状分布图，深入病房、家庭、社区、团体等对病例及接触者进行调查。结果：以发病时间计算，自2003年4月13日至5月8日，包括输入病例在内发病175例，发病率为1．9／10万，其中死亡14例，病死率达8．O％。整个流行过程不足1个月，流行特点：1例“超级传播者”直接或间接传染了全市94．3％的病例；呈现以A、B、C 3家医院聚集发病为特点的爆发性流行，占全市病例的68．6％，3家医院外的家庭聚集发病占全市病例的14．3％，同事间传播为2．3％，散发者为9．1％，这些散发者未造成接触者感染；早期医务人员发病较多，占总病例数的38．2％，流行全过程参加SARS救治工作的1975名医护人员的总感染率为3．4％；全部流行过程传染源明确，传染链清晰，全市仅3例患者未找到传染源，占病例总数的2％；在10例源头病例中仅“超级传播者”和另一病例传染了其接触者，其他传染源由于及时隔离未造成任何传播。结论：SARS是严重急性呼吸系统传染病，如能及时准确地掌握传染链并进行范围适当、及时有效的封闭及隔离措施，以科学的方法提高全民的警觉度，传染链可能在较短时间内被切断，从而控制传播。     

综合医院医务人员感染SARS情况对比分析

目的：分析在防治SARS工作初期、后期医务人员感染SARS的差异和采取的对策，为减少综合医院内医务人员SARS的感染提供参考。方甚：对本院自2003年3月24日至6月2日SARS诊断治疗任务中发生的医务人员的感染原因和采取的对策进行回顾性分析。结果：防治SARS工作初期，急诊科交叉感染和在SARS隔离病房等与SARS患者密切接触的工作岗位，共有17名医务人员感染，及时隔离治疗，均已痊愈，未造成医护人员的进一步交叉感染：经加强防护培训，改善工作条件，在防治SARS工作后期，仅发生2名护工感染，亦已痊愈，派出非典医疗队实现零感染。结论：综合医院内医务人员感染SARS的问题严峻，加强医院内的全员防护培训，按岗分区管理，改善医务人员的工作条件和病人的隔离观察环境，做好监督检查，积极应对，可以减少医务人员的SARS感染。     

Influenza and SARS: the impact of viral pandemics on maritime health

Global travel and transport play a critical role in the spread of infections. We see this clearly in the first two pandemics of the 21st century: SARS and influenza H1N1-2009. Although air travel contributed to dissemination in these two pandemics, the travel restrictions, quarantines, and heightened vigilance which resulted had an impact on maritime health. Seasonal, pandemic, and avian influenza have some important differences with regards to exposure risks, infectivity, and severity. Most of the data for maritime influenza outbreaks focus on seasonal influenza on cruise ships, but influenza among crew members occurs due to close working conditions and is potentially preventable with staff vaccination programs. To date, avian influenza has low human-to-human transmission; infection typically requires close contact with poultry, but presents with severe disease and a high fatality rate. Pandemic (swine) influenza was readily transmitted between people, including young adults, and caused severe illness in high-risk groups including pregnant women, children, and those with co-morbidities and obesity. In contrast, SARS had lower infectivity compared to influenza, and a longer incubation period. These characteristics slowed its propagation enough that outbreak control measures, such as isolation of infected cases and quarantine of exposed but well persons, were effective in terminating this pandemic. No effective vaccine exists for SARS at this time, whereas countries were able to deploy millions of doses of pandemic influenza vaccine within 7 months after the outbreak was first recognized in Mexico. The lack of a protective vaccine and the higher case fatality rate in SARS will mean that stringent quarantine measures may still be required for outbreak control if SARS ever occurs again. Compliance with international health regulations, and the ability to adapt these to maritime health needs, will be important in the shipping industry.     

广州市传染性非典型肺炎流行病学及预防控制效果的初步研究

目的 分析广州市2003年传染性非典型肺炎(SARS)流行的基本特征，探讨流行因素，评价防制措施。方法 对2003年广州市SARS患者进行流行病学调查，描述和分析流行病学、病原学和控制措施等相关资料。结果 2003年1月至4月17日，累计报告发病966例(男429例，女性537例)。首例广州市居民病例于1月2日发病；2月开始全市疫情呈上升趋势，2月上旬达到最高峰，此后疫情呈下降趋势，4月份后，平均每日新发病例降至10例以下；年龄分布以20—50岁发病数较多，低年龄组的发病数较少313个区(县级市)均有病例发生，但病例主要集中于7个中心城区，占总病例数的95％；职业以医务人员多发(占28．67％)；死亡36例，死者年龄在5—89岁之间，60岁以上占50％，死亡病例中原合并有其他疾患，如高血压、糖尿病、心脏病、肺气肿等占38.9％。发病有聚集性，42个家庭发生2例以上病例；28家医疗单位有277名医务人员发病；公共场所仅发生1起聚集性病例；学校未发生聚集性病例。流行病学特点：主要经呼吸道传播，可以气溶胶和飞沫的方式传播；接触性传播可能也是传播方式之一；传染力强，尤其是在密闭的空间内近距离接触病例获得感染的机会比较大；潜伏期1一11天，多数为3—8天，平均为5天；发病有明显的聚集性。主要控制措施及效果：病人隔离治疗，疑似病人隔离观察；加强病房通风换气；进行空气、物体表面消毒；医务人员加强个人防护。采取控制措施后，医务人员发病率显著下降。结论 根据广州市疫情控制的经验，SARS是可以预防和控制的。聚集性病例的控制应该作为重点，而控制医院内感染的发生，是非常关键的措施。     

Evaluation of measures to reduce international spread of SARS

Mathematical models are used to quantify the effect of border control measures in reducing the international spread of SARS. Border screening is shown to play a relatively minor role in reducing disease spread. Assuming detection rates similar to those reported for arrival screening in Australia, screening can detect up to 10% (95% CI 3-23) of infected travellers, and reduce the probability of a large outbreak by up to 7% (95% CI 2-17). Rapid reductions in the time to diagnosis and effective facilities for the isolation of cases are essential to ensure that there will not be a large outbreak, and each week of delay in responding to imported infection approximately doubles the total number of cases. While the control response is being developed in a currently uninfected region, border screening can provide up to one week's additional time in which to improve methods for early isolation of cases.     

消毒隔离与SARS医院感染预防和控制效果探讨

目的探讨采取消毒隔离措施对预防和控制SARS医院感染的效果.方法针对我省医疗机构在SARS医院感染预防和控制存在的主要问题,加强知识培训,提高全省医务人员认知水平,规范消毒隔离程序,实施科学防范措施,强化管理、层层把关以确保措施落到实处.结果实现了全省医务人员无感染、SARS疫情无扩散、无输出病例、患者无死亡"4个零"的突破,取得了SARS防治的阶段性胜利.结论采取有效的消毒隔离措施,SARS医院感染是可以预防和遏制的.     

SARS: UK public health response--past, present and future

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in China, the occurrence of epidemics of SARS in China and a number of Southeast Asian countries, and its spread to countries elsewhere, have presented major challenges to public health systems throughout the world. Although very few true cases of SARS were detected in the United Kingdom, the public health response to the threat of SARS was considerable. The main components of this response were the early detection, isolation and reporting of cases, and the provision of comprehensive information to health professionals, cases, their contacts and the public. The development of the response to SARS raised a number of more general issues relevant to future infectious epidemic threats. Although the World Health Organisation has now declared SARS 'contained', the possibility of re-emergence is ever present. All countries will need to be vigilant and plan their response to the possibility of a renewed SARS epidemic.     

Evaluation of Border Entry Screening for Infectious Diseases in Humans

In response to the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) pandemic of 2003 and the influenza pandemic of 2009, many countries instituted border measures as a means of stopping or slowing the spread of disease. The measures, usually consisting of a combination of border entry/exit screening, quarantine, isolation, and communications, were resource intensive, and modeling and observational studies indicate that border screening is not effective at detecting infectious persons. Moreover, border screening has high opportunity costs, financially and in terms of the use of scarce public health staff resources during a time of high need. We discuss the border-screening experiences with SARS and influenza and propose an approach to decision-making for future pandemics. We conclude that outbreak-associated communications for travelers at border entry points, together with effective communication with clinicians and more effective disease control measures in the community, may be a more effective approach to the international control of communicable diseases.     

Modelling responses to a smallpox epidemic taking into account uncertainty

Epidemiology and modelling are currently under pressure to build consistent scenarios of control in case of deliberate release of biological weapons. In order to assess the key parameters for the control of a smallpox outbreak in a large city (2 million inhabitants), we built a stochastic model to simulate the course of an epidemic controlled by ring vaccination and case isolation. Assuming a reference scenario with 100 index cases and implementation of intervention 25 days after the attack, the model forecasts an epidemic of 730 cases with an epidemic duration of 240 days. Setting intervention 20 days later would result in an almost fourfold increase in the epidemic size. A multivariate sensitivity analysis has selected three key parameters: the basic reproduction number (i.e. the number of secondary cases infected by one case in an entirely susceptible population, equal to 3 in the reference scenario), time to intervention, and proportion of traced and vaccinated contacts.     

北京市SARS患者密切接触者发病及其危险因素分析

目的 了解SARS密切接触者的发病危险因素。方法 采用回顾性流行病学方法,分析已有的SARS疫情及密切接触者的流行病学资料,利用SPSS统计软件对现有资料进行统计学分析。结果 在北京市5个区县的2195个密切接触者中,转归为病例138例,罹患率为6.3％。与病例为同事、同学关系,罹患率仅为0.36％。家务待业病例的密切接触者罹患率为最高(15.33％),接触地点在家和医院的密切接触者罹患率为31.71％,接触地点在学校密切接触者罹患率为0.77％。而接触地点在工作单位的密切接触者459名中,无一例转为病例,罹患率为零。结论 密切接触者发病的影响因素与患者接触时间、接触程度与频率、接触地点、隔离方式、时间及密切接触者的年龄等有关。SARS的传播途径存在近距离密切接触传播及家庭聚集性感染。科学管理密切接触者是控制SARS疫情蔓延的有效措施。     

广东省传染性非典型肺炎预防控制策略探讨

目的 探讨广东省传染性非典型肺炎(SARS)的预防控制策略和效果。方法 分析广东省SARS疫情和制定预防控制措施。结果 2002年11月16日至200B年5月30日，全省共发生SARS病例1511例，死亡57例，累计发病率1．98／10万。全省21个市中有15个市报告病例，病例主要集中在珠江三角洲地区，其中广州市占86．04％。发病以医务人员为主，占22．90％；病例主要集中在20～39岁，占50．95％；出现明显的医院或家庭聚集性。采取预防控制的策略及效果：加强党政的正确领导，各有关部门密切配合，正确把握舆论导向等组织策略；加强技术指导，重视疫情监测报告，采取综合性预防控制措施(加强医院感染控制、早发现和就地隔离治疗病人、小范围隔离观察密切接触者、强调室内通风、注意个人卫生、增强体质)，加强调查研究和科研攻关，发动全社会共同参与等技术策略。预防控制策略实施后，全省日均发病数从2月份的25．6例下降到5月份的0．3例；医务人员所占比例由1月及以前的30．8％下降到5月份未有医务人员感染；未出现住宅小区或学校聚集性暴发的情况。结论 广东省首次出现SARS暴发流行，通过采取一系列行之有效的组织和技术策略后，广东省SARS疫情初步得到有效控制。各级党政的高度重视和正确领导是做好SARS防治工作强有力的保证。加强SARS防治工作的技术指导，重视疫情监测报告，切实落实有效的综合性预防控制措施，尤其是加强医院感染控制是防制措施的关键。