Management of cardiogenic shock due to acute coronary syndromes

Despite advances in the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndromes, there has been no significant decrease in the incidence of cardiogenic shock, while its mortality remains frustratingly high. Shock is a progressive state of hypotension (systolic blood pressure < 90 mm Hg) lasting at least 30 minutes, which leads to systemic hypoperfusion. It is more common in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction than in patients with other acute coronary syndromes. Revascularization is associated with better outcomes than intensive medical therapy, especially in patients < 75 years of age with cardiogenic shock. Adjunctive therapies include inotropes, vasopressor therapy, intra-aortic balloon pump counterpulsation, and IIb/IIIa blockade to prevent no-reflow phenomenon during primary percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Other adjunctive therapies which are investigated are improved mechanical support devices, and as medical therapy for myocyte protection nicorandil, glucose/insulin/potassium infusions and direct inhibition of Na+/H+ exchanger.     

Impella assisted transradial coronary intervention in patients with acute coronary syndromes and cardiogenic shock

Operators may feel apprehension when considering the transradial approach in patients with cardiogenic shock due to concerns of the need for femoral access for mechanical support. There is however potential benefit of transradial approach in this setting by reducing bleeding complications in patients on potent anticoagulant and antiplatelet agents. We report three cases of patients with cardiogenic shock with successful transradial intervention (TRI) whilst using unilateral femoral access for Impella (ABIOMED, Danvers, MA) mechanical support. In two cases, the need for mechanical support was not clear at the beginning of the procedure, and in the third there was a clear need to combine femoral and radial access due to pre‐existing anatomic issues. Two patients required transfusion of red blood cells but otherwise there were no vascular access complications. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Management of acute cardiogenic shock

The present state of the art in mechanical cardiac assist technology has permitted application of machines to a variety of conditions that confound the cardiologist and cardiac surgeon alike. Decades of research and development have allowed the present devices to be used as bridges to native heart recovery and bridges to transplantation. We are now entering the era in which devices are being placed for permanent assist or replacement. Although the acute cardiogenic shock patient remains problematic, we now have at our disposable a variety of tools that have enabled us to salvage more patients than ever before. The experience with these systems continues to grow, with leading centers and investigators contributing meaningful information toward the application and development of the latest technologies. It has been said that mechanical therapies precede biological therapies. We are at the crossroads in which a combination of biological therapies with mechanical therapies is underway. Current research is investigating the role of mechanical cardiac support while biological therapies are introduced into the failing heart. In the meantime, the role of mechanical cardiac assist and replacement has matured into an effective means of treating acute cardiogenic shock of any variety.     

New insights into cardiogenic shock and coronary revascularization after acute myocardial infarction

Cardiogenic shock management and guidelines. The green boxes represent class I recommendations and the orange boxes represent class II recommendations from the European Society of Cardiology guidelines; the grey boxes represent management suggestions from the authors based on data presented in this review. ACS: acute coronary syndrome; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; NSTEMI: non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention; STEMI: ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction; UFH: unfractionated heparin.

     

Takotsubo cardiomiopathy. A rare cause of cardiogenic shock simulating acute myocardial infarction

Takotsubo Cardiomiopathy is a rare cause of acute left ventricular aneurysm, in the absence of coronariopathy, only recently described in world literature. Symptoms may be similar to those from acute myocardial infarction with typical thoracic pain. The image of dumbbell or Takotsubo (a device used in Japan to capture octopus) suggestive ventricular ballooning is characteristic of that new syndrome and there is usually the disappearing of dyskinetic movement up to the 18th day from the beginning of the symptoms, in average.     

Procalcitonin in patients with acute coronary syndromes and cardiogenic shock submitted to percutaneous coronary intervention

Procalcitonin (PCT) is known to be a biological diagnostic marker for severe sepsis, or septic shock in critically ill patients. There are still contrasting data about a role of procalcitonin in patients with acute myocardial infarction or cardiogenic shock, and in those with acute coronary syndromes, that is, non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction or unstable angina. We evaluated plasma levels of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein (CRP) in 52 patients admitted to our intensive cardiac care unit (ICCU): 14 patients with cardiogenic shock (CS) following ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), 15 patients with uncomplicated ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), and 24 with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction or unstable angina (NSTEMI/UA). In all patients, infective processes were excluded. Procalcitonin values were significantly higher in CS patients with respect to the other two subgroups (P < 0.001, P < 0.001) while CRP levels were higher than NSTEMI/UA patients (P < 0.001) but not with respect to STEMI patients (P = 0.063). No correlations were found in cardiogenic shock patients between CRP and PCT values (R = 0.02; P = 0.762, ns). Procalcitonin levels measured on ICCU admission are significantly higher in patients with cardiogenic shock following the acute myocardial infarction, and they are not correlated with those of CRP. The degree of myocardial ischemia (clinically indicated by the whole spectrum of ACS, from unstable angina to cardiogenic shock ST-elevation following myocardial infarction) and the related inflammatory-induced response are better reflected by CRP (which was positive in most acute cardiac care patients of all our subgroups), than by PCT which seems more reflective of a higher degree of inflammatory activation, being positive only in all CS patients.     

Long-term results after acute percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock

The aim of this study was to determine the long-term outcome in unselected, consecutive patients after acute percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTCA) for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) complicated by cardiogenic shock. This involved a follow-up study from a prospectively conducted patient registry in a tertiary referral center. A total of 59 patients (10 female/49 male; median age 62 years (32-91)) with percutaneous transluminal cardiac interventions in primary cardiogenic shock were identified between January 1995 and January 2000. Twenty-two patients (37%) had been resuscitated successfully before intervention. The in-hospital mortality of shock patients was 36% (n=21, median age 68 (47-84)). The median follow-up of survivors was 18.1 (7-57.3) months, during which three further patients died (8%; two because of sudden cardiac deaths, one because of acute reinfarction). Achievement of thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) flow III after acute PTCA (84% in survivors vs. 38% in non-survivors; P<0.001) and the absence of the left main coronary artery (3% survivors vs. 29% non-survivors; P=0.003) as culprit lesion in patients with cardiogenic shock was strongly associated with an improved survival rate. A second cardiac intervention was performed in seven patients (18%). Overall functional capacity of shock survivors was good. At final follow-up, 80% of the survivors were completely asymptomatic. One patient had angina pectoris NYHA II, five patients dyspnoea NYHA class II. Exercise stress-test was performed in 24 of the 38 surviving patients, median exercise capacity was 100% (range 55-113%) of the age adjusted predicted value. In unselected patients with cardiogenic shock due to AMI, treatment with acute PTCA resulted in an in-hospital mortality of 36%, low late mortality and good functional capacity in long-term survivors. TIMI flow grade III after acute PTCA in patients with acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock was strongly associated with an improved survival rate whereas the left main coronary artery as culprit lesion was associated with worse outcome.     

Unprotected left main coronary artery intervention for acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock

Medical therapy alone often insufficiently alters the clinical course of patients who have experienced acute myocardial infarction and concomitant cardiogenic shock, and in whom the left main coronary artery is the culprit vessel. Emergency coronary artery bypass grafting is an effective yet time-consuming approach that entails the risk of extensive, irreversible myocardial damage. Percutaneous coronary intervention in the unprotected left main coronary artery can enable initial revascularization and rapid stabilization even in high-risk patients, but outcomes from the procedure since the recent advent of drug-eluting stents are still being determined. Herein, we report the successful deployment of a sirolimus-eluting stent in a 65-year-old man who had experienced acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock consequent to an occluded left main coronary artery. The patient recovered rapidly and completely. We review the medical literature and compare percutaneous coronary intervention with other methods of treatment.     

Occlusion of the right coronary artery with acute right heart infarct and cardiogenic shock

In a 42-year-old patient with an acute inferior infarction the right coronary artery was recanalised by intracoronary streptokinase 4 hours after the onset of symptoms. In spite of early reperfusion the patient developed an extensive myocardial infarction and died three days later from cardiogenic shock. Autopsy revealed an almost complete necrosis of the right ventricle including the inferior interventricular septum and the adjacent left ventricular wall. Diagnostic and therapeutic problems in the so-called dominant right ventricular infarction are discussed.     

Transluminal recanalization of coronary artery thrombosis: a preliminary report of its application in cardiogenic shock

In a 75 year old male patient with cardiogenic shock due toan acute inferior myocardial infarction the occluded right coronaryartery was recanalized via a catheter. The occlusion consistedin an old stenotic lesion with an acute thrombus superimposed.Contrast injection appeared to result in the mobilization ofthe thrombus with partial reopening of the vessel. After 45min of intracoronary streptokinase infusion the thrombus appearedto be completely resolved. Reperfusion was associated with thereversal of shock.     

Methamphetamine-associated acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock with normal coronary arteries: refractory global coronary microvascular spasm

Methamphetamine (MET) is a growing public health concern and is prevalent in, although not limited to, the youth. The drug's association with myocardial infarction is well described and is attributed to accelerated atherosclerosis, hypercoagulable state, and macrovascular epicardial coronary spasm. However, global slow-flow of all coronary systems in the absence of significant stenoses has not been previously reported. We hereby present a young patient who likely experienced severe, global microvascular coronary spasm unrelieved by intracoronary vasodilator therapy, resulting in acute myocardial infarction. The pharmacology of MET, its postulated mechanism in acute coronary syndromes, as well as the pathophysiology and treatments of microvascular coronary spasm are briefly reviewed. Readers are recommended to be vigilant of potential illicit drug use in patients with atypical presentations of acute coronary syndromes.     

Multivessel coronary thrombosis, acute myocardial infarction, and no reflow in a patient with essential thrombocythaemia

Essential thrombocythaemia (ET) has been reported rarely to cause coronary thrombosis, but the management is still undefined. A 63 year old woman with multivessel coronary thrombosis, acute myocardial infarction (MI), and no reflow in reperfused coronary artery in association with ET is presented. The patient's platelet count was only moderately raised at the onset of MI, but peripheral blood smear and bone marrow evaluation revealed clumping giant platelets and numerous large hyperploid megakaryocytes. Long term prophylaxis with antiplatelet agents in patients with ET is recommended, even if the platelet count is not largely raised. Cytoreductive treatment may also be effective for secondary prevention when thrombotic complications occur.


Keywords: essential thrombocythaemia; thrombosis; coronary artery; no reflow     

Multivessel coronary angioplasty early after acute myocardial infarction

Coronary angioplasty has been applied in patients with recent myocardial infarction, but results of angioplasty of multiple vessels early after myocardial infarction in patients with severe multivessel disease have not been reported. Coronary angioplasty of multiple vessels was performed in 105 patients 0 to 15 days (mean 5 +/- 4) after recent myocardial infarction. There were 77 men (73%) and 28 women (27%), with a mean age of 57 years. All patients had severe multivessel disease, 68% with two vessel and 32% with three vessel disease. Twenty-eight patients (27%) had successful thrombolysis before angioplasty and 70 (67%) had postinfarction angina. Mean left ventricular ejection fraction was 58 +/- 10% and was less than 45% in 13 patients (12%). Angioplasty was attempted in 319 lesions (mean 3 lesions per patient, range 2 to 9) and 252 vessels (mean 2.4 vessels per patient, range 2 to 4), with success in 302 lesions (95%) and 237 vessels (94%); angioplasty was done in two stages in 59 patients (56%). Clinical success was achieved in 102 patients (97%). Complications included myocardial infarction in six patients (5.7%) (one Q wave, five non-Q wave), urgent bypass surgery in two (1.9%) and death in one (0.9%); overall, seven patients (7%) had a major complication. All patients had a follow-up duration greater than 1 year (mean 31 months, range 12 to 73). Clinical recurrence developed in 24 patients (23%), of whom 21 had repeat angioplasty, 1 had bypass surgery and 2 were managed medically. Ten patients (9.8%) had a late infarction and 5 (4.9%) died of cardiac death during the follow-up period.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Emergency coronary stenting of unprotected critical left main coronary artery stenosis in acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock

In the setting of acute myocardial infarction (MI) and cardiogenic shock in patients with significant unprotected left main coronary artery (LMCA) disease, treatment options are limited. In this report of a patient presenting in cardiogenic shock secondary to acute MI with critical LMCA stenosis, percutaneous coronary intervention with intra-aortic balloon pump support proved life saving.     

主动脉内球囊反搏术治疗急性冠脉综合征伴心源性休克的应用

目的：评价急性冠脉综合征（ACS）合并心源性休克的患者行冠脉介入治疗辅以主动脉内球囊反搏（IABP）术的安全性及有效性。方法：40例ACS合并心源性休克患者,行冠脉介入治疗辅以主动脉内球囊反搏（IABP）术,观察其临床效果及安全性。结果：40例ACS患者经冠脉介入及IABP治疗后,35例存活患者主动脉内收缩压、舒张压显著升高,分别由术前（82．54±5．35）mmHg、（50．34±3．57）mmHg上升至术后（95．11±6．87）mmHg、（80．39±4．86）mmHg（P均〈0．01）。临床症状明显好转,血流动力学显著改善。结论：急性冠脉综合征合并心源性休克患者行冠脉介入治疗时,联合应用主动脉内球囊反搏,可增加冠脉介入治疗安全性,降低病死率,提高手术成功率。     

Left main coronary artery stenting in a patient with acute myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock

Acute total occlusion of left main coronary artery (LMCA) is rarely found in patients presenting with acute coronary syndromes. It is a grave condition with poor prognosis. We present a case of successful stenting of a LMCA lesion in a patient presenting with acute myocardial infarct and cardiogenic shock.