Radiochromic solutions for reference dosimetry

A chemical radiochromic dosimeter using hexa(hydroxyethyl)pararosaniline nitrile (HHEV-CN) dissolved in an aerated mixture of triethyl phosphate and dimethyl sulfoxide can be used over a wide absorbed dose range as a stable reference dosimeter, with useful characteristics, both for steady-state and pulsed radiation fields. Solutions of the leuco dye at 2-mM concentration, containing small amounts of acetic acid, p-nitrobenzoic acid and polyvinylbutyral, show high precision and a linear response for absorbed doses up to 4 kGy. When the leuco dye concentration is increased to 100 mM, the response is also linear, and absorbed doses as low as 0.5 Gy can be read with a precision of 1.3% (95% confidence limits). The radiation chemical yield is constant with changes in absorbed dose rate, but it increases with concentration of the leuco dye up to 10⁻¹ molarity. The radiation chemical yields for dye formation are: for 2-mM solution, G(dye) = 0.015 μmol J⁻¹; for 100-mM solution, G(dye) = 0.28 μmol J⁻¹. The uncertainties for these measured values are ±2.6% (95% confidence limits). The molar linear absorption coefficient at 605–608 nm wavelength is 1.0 × 10⁵ L mol⁻¹ cm⁻¹, the uncertainty (95% confidence limits) being ±2.2%. This dosimeter solution may be used in small sealed glass ampoules or plastic vials and is useful for measuring x- and γ-ray doses of interest in food irradiation and in clinical radiology. The combination of ingredients simulates water and biological tissue (muscle) in terms of radiation interaction cross sections, i.e. mass energy-absorption coefficients for photons (0.1–20 MeV) and mass collision stopping powers for electrons (0.1–50 MeV).     

Lubricant γ-ray dosimeter

A chemical dosimeter has been developed which is based on the gas evolution of lubricants by γ-radiation. The dosimeter can be used to measure γ-doses with good linearity in the range of 1–10 Mrad. Four commercial lubricant oils, motor oil, brake fluid, transmission, fluid and vacuum pump oil were tested with ⁶⁰Co γ-radiation at an average dose rate of 72 krad h⁻¹ inside the sample container. The dosimeter was calibrated with a thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD, CaF₂: Mn).     

Energy dependence measurement of small-type optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dosimeter by means of characteristic X-rays induced with general diagnostic X-ray equipment

For X-ray inspections by way of general X-ray equipment, it is important to measure an entrance-skin dose. Recently, a small optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dosimeter was made commercially available by Landauer, Inc. The dosimeter does not interfere with the medical images; therefore, it is expected to be a convenient detector for measuring personal exposure doses. In an actual clinical situation, it is assumed that X-rays of different energies will be detected by a dosimeter. For evaluation of the exposure dose measured by a dosimeter, it is necessary to know the energy dependence of the dosimeter. Our aim in this study was to measure the energy dependence of the OSL dosimeter experimentally in the diagnostic X-ray region. Metal samples weighing several grams were irradiated and, in this way, characteristic X-rays having energies ranging from 8 to 85 keV were generated. Using these mono-energetic X-rays, the dosimeter was irradiated. Simultaneously, the fluence of the X-rays was determined with a CdTe detector. The energy-dependent efficiency of the dosimeter was derived from the measured value of the dosimeter and the fluence. Moreover, the energy-dependent efficiency was calculated by Monte-Carlo simulation. The efficiency obtained in the experiment was in good agreement with that of the simulation. In conclusion, our proposed method, in which characteristic X-rays are used, is valuable for measurement of the energy dependence of a small OSL dosimeter in the diagnostic X-ray region.     

Estimation of identification limit for a small-type OSL dosimeter on the medical images by measurement of X-ray spectra

Our aim in this study is to derive an identification limit on a dosimeter for not disturbing a medical image when patients wear a small-type optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dosimeter on their bodies during X-ray diagnostic imaging. For evaluation of the detection limit based on an analysis of X-ray spectra, we propose a new quantitative identification method. We performed experiments for which we used diagnostic X-ray equipment, a soft-tissue-equivalent phantom (1–20 cm), and a CdTe X-ray spectrometer assuming one pixel of the X-ray imaging detector. Then, with the following two experimental settings, corresponding X-ray spectra were measured with 40–120 kVp and 0.5–1000 mAs at a source-to-detector distance of 100 cm: (1) X-rays penetrating a soft-tissue-equivalent phantom with the OSL dosimeter attached directly on the phantom, and (2) X-rays penetrating only the soft-tissue-equivalent phantom. Next, the energy fluence and errors in the fluence were calculated from the spectra. When the energy fluence with errors concerning these two experimental conditions was estimated to be indistinctive, we defined the condition as the OSL dosimeter not being identified on the X-ray image. Based on our analysis, we determined the identification limit of the dosimeter. We then compared our results with those for the general irradiation conditions used in clinics. We found that the OSL dosimeter could not be identified under the irradiation conditions of abdominal and chest radiography, namely, one can apply the OSL dosimeter to measurement of the exposure dose in the irradiation field of X-rays without disturbing medical images.     

Routine kilogray dosimetry with dichromate solutions

The potential advantages of dichromate solutions for routine kilogray dosimetry are reviewed. A new approach to the measurement of dichromate dosimeters is described. On irradiation, dichromate solutions yield Cr³⁺. This reduces ceric solutions quantitatively enabling potentiometric measurements to be made with the resultant ceric/cerous redox couples, using simple measuring equipment. One single dosimeter solution and procedure can cover a very wide dose range. The sensitivity and accuracy can be varied after the irradiation by choosing proportions of ceric and dosimeter solutions which suit selected narrower dose ranges. Examples illustrate the use of this technique with a dosimeter consisting of 0.005 M K₂Cr₂O₇ in 0.4 M H₂SO₄, and doses in the range 0.5–100 kGy. For doses of about 10 kGy and more, small volume dichromate dosimeters can be evaluated by direct measurement of Cr³⁺, using a simple potentiometric titration method. Alternatively, the disappearance of dichromate ion can be measured spectrophotometrically; since the absorption peak is at 350 nm, relatively inexpensive equipment can be used. With this choice of simple measurement techniques, dichromate solutions may prove a useful alternative to ceric-cerous solutions for routine kilogray dosimetry.     

Dose control in the semi-industrial irradiation plant at Ezeiza Atomic Center

High-dose dosimetry is carried out at Ezeiza Atomic Center (CAE) on a routine basis, within the absorbed dose range 10²–10⁵ Gy using potassium nitrate dosimeters (Dorda and Muñoz, 1985). The reference dosimeter is Fricke and Super Fricke. The next inauguration of a private irradiation plant and the increasing interest for a new technology in the industry led us to use a dosimeter easy to be read, without need for wet chemical analysis: the alanine dosimeter (Regulla and Deffner, 1982). Under the influence of ionizing radiation, the alanine in the crystalline state forms stable paramagnetic free radicals. The radical concentration of irradiated alanine, which is proportional to the absorbed dose, can be measured using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. The pellets are made of 90% alanine and 10% paraffin. The procedure for mixing is not simple: temperature control is used to get an homogenous mass. The dose evaluation is performed for the ESR signal by measuring the maximum peak-to-peak amplitude. Intercomparison studies were made between the alanine and potassium nitrate dosimeter with good results. The relative standard deviation of our alanine dosimeter at doses of 25 and 32 kGy and 25°C temperature is 4%.     

Characterization of high-sensitivity metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor dosimeters system and LiF:Mg,Cu,P thermoluminescence dosimeters for use in diagnostic radiology

Monitoring radiation exposure during diagnostic radiographic procedures has recently become an area of interest. In recent years, the LiF:Mg,Cu,P thermoluminescence dosimeter (TLD-100H) and the highly sensitive metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) dosimeter were introduced as good candidates for entrance skin dose measurements in diagnostic radiology. In the present study, the TLD-100H and the MOSFET dosimeters were evaluated for sensitivity, linearity, energy, angular dependence, and post-exposure response. Our results indicate that the TLD-100H dosimeter has excellent linearity within diagnostic energy ranges and its sensitivity variations were under 3% at tube potentials from 40 Vp to 125 kVp. Good linearity was also observed with the MOSFET dosimeter, but in low-dose regions the values are less reliable and were found to be a function of the tube potentials. Both dosimeters also presented predictable angular dependence in this study. Our findings suggest that the TLD-100H dosimeter is more appropriate for low-dose diagnostic procedures such as chest and skull projections. The MOSFET dosimeter system is valuable for entrance skin dose measurement with lumbar spine projections and certain fluoroscopic procedures.     

Al2O3剂量计在准直60Co γ线中的吸收剂量响应

目的 用Monte Carlo法研究Al₂O₃剂量计在准直⁶⁰Co γ线照射下在水中的吸收剂量响应特性。方法 用EGSnrc/DOSRZnrc 程序计算水体模中Al₂O₃剂量计的吸收剂量及剂量计相应位置上水的吸收剂量,并计算吸收剂量换算因子。剂量计元件用一个直径0.4 cm高0.1 cm的圆柱形Al₂O₃薄片表示,计算深度0.5~8.0 cm,入射粒子是准直后的⁶⁰Co γ线。结果 在研究的深度范围内,吸收剂量换算因子变化不大,平均值为1.143±0.006,最大偏差不大于1.0%。结论 在研究范围内,⁶⁰Co γ线中Al₂O₃剂量计的吸收剂量响应与剂量计在水体模中的深度无关,剂量响应稳定。     

The degradation of triazo dye chlorantine fast green BLL in aqueous solutions by gamma radiation—III

The radiation degradation yield (G_{d values}) of Chlorantine Fast Green BLL (CFGBLL), G_d, i.e. the value of moles of dye molecules degraded per joule of energy absorbed (sometimes given in units of the number of molecules decomposed per 100 eV of radiation energy absorbed) was measured in aerated, oxygen- and nitrogen-saturated aqueous solutions. The G_d values were found to be 0.063, 0.0715 and 0.033 μmol/J or (0.61, 0.69 and 0.32/100 eV) respectively. The relatively low degradation yield indicates the absence of chain reactions and probably the poor efficiency and economics, in terms of the practical application of the radiation process. For applications in the radiation treatment of waste water, it is noted that in the presence of oxygen and at higher concentration of CFGBLL, the value of G_d increases markedly, so that it may be practical to monitor the extent of sterilization of water. In addition the radiation processing of CFGBLL waste water may also become economically feasible. The specific bimolecular rate constant of the reaction of CFGBLL with the ^.OH was determined by studying the effect of ethanol concentration on G_d using competition kinetics. This rate constant was found to be k = 2.32 × 10¹⁰ and 1.65 × 10¹⁰ L mol/s at 610 and 380 nm wavelengths, respectively. Suggestions are made for the possible use of CFGBLL aqueous solution as a chemical dosimeter in the range of absorbed dose from 0.1 to 5 kGy.     

Dosimetry commissioning for an industrial cobalt-60 gamma-radiation facility

In order to establish plant operational parameters of the industrial ⁶⁰Co irradiation facility, UTR GAMA-Pi, a commissioning dosimetry procedure was carried out at the National Laboratory for Engineering and Industrial Technology (LNETI), Lisbon, Portugal. Detailed dose mapping, with and without industrial product, was used to measure the distribution of absorbed dose in the radiation field inside the irradiation cell. “Dummy” and “dosimetry” boxes were prepared, each having 200 kg m⁻³ bulk density, using a combination of cardboard sheets and folded and crumpled newspapers. Four dosimeter systems were used for measurements: red and amber Perspex, radiochromic dye films, ethanol-monochlorobenzene solutions and potassium dichromate solutions. All systems were calibrated against the Fricke dosimeter solution. The dosimetry commissioning procedures allowed the establishment of the setting of conveyor dwell times to reach prescribed minimum doses, as well as the computation of a source utilization efficiency of approx. 19.5% and a dose uniformity ratio of approx. 1.25. Using these data, the capacity throughput of the irradiation plant was evaluated to be 4265 m³ yr⁻¹ or 853 tonnes yr⁻¹ for the ⁶⁰Co plaque source with an initial activity of 1.095 × 10¹⁶ Bq (295 kCi) (November 1988), at an operational working time of 7000 h yr⁻¹, and a specified product dwell time setting of 12.6 min, for a minimum absorbed dose of 25 kGy and a product bulk density of 200 kg m⁻³.     

Fading characteristics of an alanine-polystyrene dosimeter

Alanine dosimetry is useful for transfer dosimetry by long distance mailing, because of its stability. It has the advantage that the measurement of electron spin resonance (ESR) spectral signal is non-destructive to the dosimeter, with the promise that the method may supply archival dosimetry data, depending on the degree of post-irradiation stability of the signal. The effects of temperature during irradiation and storage on fading of the ESR signal were studied using an alanine dosimeter molded with polystyrene (alanine-PS dosimeter). This investigation covered a long range of storage time (up to 160 days) after irradiation to absorbed doses in the range 1 to 100 kGy, for application to transfer dosimetry between Japan and neighboring Asian countries.Dose response of an alanine-PS dosimeter depends on the temperature during irradiation. The same temperature coefficient of +0.24%/°C was measured at different dose levels of 1, 10 and 100 kGy administered at a constant dose rate of 7 kGy/h. Fading of the dose response was measured under storage at various temperatures (5–40°C). The fading curve generally has two phases with fast and slow fading rates. The response of an alanine dosimeter is relatively stable for doses of 1.4 and 14 kGy, when stored at temperatures below 25°C. However, the degree of fading was roughly 3 and 5% under a storage temperature of 40°C for 5 and 100 days, respectively, after irradiation to 14 kGy. The fading percentages at 100 kGy were 2 and 4% (after 5 days) and 6 and 15% (after 100 days) under the storage temperature of 25 and 40°C, respectively. The fading rates have a relatively small dependence on irradiation temperature. This is observed even when irradiation are made at high temperatures (60°C) and for the doses 100 kGy and above. The mechanism of decay of radicals is discussed to explain the fading characteristics of the two phases of fading. The alanine-PS dosimeter is useful for transfer standard dosimetry up to a dose level of 10 kGy when stored after irradiation at temperature below 40°C. However, consideration of temperature effects during and after irradiation is vital for accurate transfer dosimetry of high doses, especially in the southern Asian countries.     

Measuring pacemaker dose: A clinical perspective

Recently in our clinic, we have seen an increased number of patients presenting with pacemakers and defibrillators. Precautions are taken to develop a treatment plan that minimizes the dose to the pacemaker because of the adverse effects of radiation on the electronics. Here we analyze different dosimeters to determine which is the most accurate in measuring pacemaker or defibrillator dose while at the same time not requiring a significant investment in time to maintain an efficient workflow in the clinic. The dosimeters analyzed here were ion chambers, diodes, metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFETs), and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dosimeters. A simple phantom was used to quantify the angular and energy dependence of each dosimeter. Next, 8 patients plans were delivered to a Rando phantom with all the dosimeters located where the pacemaker would be, and the measurements were compared with the predicted dose. A cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) image was obtained to determine the dosimeter response in the kilovoltage energy range. In terms of the angular and energy dependence of the dosimeters, the ion chamber and diode were the most stable. For the clinical cases, all the dosimeters match relatively well with the predicted dose, although the ideal dosimeter to use is case dependent. The dosimeters, especially the MOSFETS, tend to be less accurate for the plans, with many lateral beams. Because of their efficiency, we recommend using a MOSFET or a diode to measure the dose. If a discrepancy is observed between the measured and expected dose (especially when the pacemaker to field edge is <10 cm), we recommend analyzing the treatment plan to see whether there are many lateral beams. Follow-up with another dosimeter rather than repeating multiple times with the same type of dosimeter. All dosimeters should be placed after the CBCT has been acquired.     

Entrance surface dose measurements using a small OSL dosimeter with a computed tomography scanner having 320 rows of detectors

Entrance surface dose (ESD) measurements are important in X-ray computed tomography (CT) for examination, but in clinical settings it is difficult to measure ESDs because of a lack of suitable dosimeters. We focus on the capability of a small optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dosimeter. The aim of this study is to propose a practical method for using an OSL dosimeter to measure the ESD when performing a CT examination. The small OSL dosimeter has an outer width of 10 mm; it is assumed that a partial dose may be measured because the slice thickness and helical pitch can be set to various values. To verify our method, we used a CT scanner having 320 rows of detectors and checked the consistencies of the ESDs measured using OSL dosimeters by comparing them with those measured using Gafchromic? films. The films were calibrated using an ionization chamber on the basis of half-value layer estimation. On the other hand, the OSL dosimeter was appropriately calibrated using a practical calibration curve previously proposed by our group. The ESDs measured using the OSL dosimeters were in good agreement with the reference ESDs from the Gafchromic? films. Using these data, we also estimated the uncertainty of ESDs measured with small OSL dosimeters. We concluded that a small OSL dosimeter can be considered suitable for measuring the ESD with an uncertainty of 30 % during CT examinations in which pitch factors below 1.000 are applied.     

Alanine EPR dosimeter response in proton therapy beams

We report a series of measurements directed to assess the suitability of alanine as a mailable dosimeter for dosimetry quality assurance of proton radiation therapy beams. These measurements include dose-response of alanine at 140 MeV, and comparison of response vs energy with a parallel plate ionization chamber. All irradiations were made at the Harvard Cyclotron Laboratory, and the dosimeter were read at NIST. The results encourage us that alanine could be expected to serve as a mailable dosimeter with systematic error due to differential energy response no greater than 3% when doses of 25 Gy are used.     

用治疗级电离室测量短脉冲高剂量率X射线的实验研究

目的:探索研究治疗级电离室用于短脉冲高剂量率X射线的快速测量。方法:利用内插法测量某电子加速器装置所致脉冲X射线半值层,估算其等效能量;采用治疗级电离室和热释光测量方法,对比设备周围同一方向不同距离处相同数量脉冲辐射的累积剂量;分析电离室剂量仪测量结果与源距离之间的关系,对比不同频率下同一位置相同数量脉冲辐射的累积剂量...     

Assessing doses to interventional radiologists using a personal dosimeter worn over a protective apron

Backround: Interventional radiologists receive significant radiation doses, and it is important to have simple methods for routine monitoring of their exposure.

Purpose: To evaluate the usefulness of a dosimeter worn outside the protective apron for assessments of dose to interventional radiologists.

Material and Methods: Assessments of effective dose versus dose to dosimeters worn outside the protective apron were achieved by phantom measurements. Doses outside and under the apron were assessed by phantom measurements and measurements on eight radiologists wearing two routine dosimeters for a 2-month period during ordinary working conditions. Finger doses for the same radiologists were recorded using thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD; DXT-RAD Extremity dosimeters).

Results: Typical values for the ratio between effective dose and dosimeter dose were found to be about 0.02 when the radiologist used a thyroid shield and about 0.03 without. The ratio between the dose to the dosimeter under and outside a protective apron was found to be less than 0.04. There was very good correlation between finger dose and dosimeter dose.

Conclusion: A personal dosimeter worn outside a protective apron is a good screening device for dose to the eyes and fingers as well as for effective dose, even though the effective dose is grossly overestimated. Relatively high dose to the fingers and eyes remains undetected by a dosimeter worn under the apron.     

Ferrous sulphate dosimetry by the thiocyanate method

The use of ammonium thiocyanate to estimate ferric ions in the ferrous sulphate dosimeter has been investigated. The spontaneous oxidation rate of ferrous ions increased with increase in thiocyanate ion or ferrous ion concentration and with decrease in ferric ion concentrations. The spontaneous oxidation rate was too fast at the usual ferrous ion concentrations to permit accurate measurements at low doses. However it was slowed down to an acceptable level by using a dosimeter solution of 1 × 10⁻⁴ M FeSO₄/1 × 10⁻³ M NaCl/0.4 M H₂ SO₄ in which the G(Fe³⁺) value was found to be 15.6 and independent of dose up to 5 krad. Two procedures involving different proportions of thiocyanate were used to form the ferric thiocyanate complex. Optical absorbance measurements were made at 477 nm. Details of the method are given for the estimation of doses in the range 200–2600 rad. Only 1 ml of dosimeter solution is required when 10 cm path length spectrophotometer micro-cells which are commercially available are used. A standard error of less than ±1.0% was obtained.     

Measurement of patient skin dose in interventional radiology using passive integrating dosimeter

To avoid radiation injury from interventional radiology (IVR), quality assurance (QA) of IVR equipment based on dosimetry is important. In this study, we investigated the usefulness of measuring patient skin dose with a passive integrating dosimeter and water phantom. The optically stimulated luminescence dosimeter (OSLD) was chosen from among various passive integrating dosimeters. The characteristics of the OSLD were compared with a reference ionization dosimeter. The effective energy obtained from the OSLD was compared with that found by the aluminum attenuation method for using the reference ionization dosimeter. Doses and effective energies measured by OSLD correlated well with those of the reference ionization dosimeter. (dose: y=0.971x, r=0.999, effective energy: y=0.990x, r=0.994). It was suggested that OSLD could simultaneously and correctly measure both patient skin dose and effective energy. Patient skin dose rate and effective energy for 15 IVR units of 10 hospitals were investigated using OSLD and a water phantom for automatic brightness control fluoroscopy. The measurement was performed at the surface of a water phantom that was located on the interventional reference point, and source image intensifier distance was fixed to 100 cm. When the 9-inch field size was selected, the average patient skin dose rate was 16.3+/-8.1 mGy/min (3.6-32.0 mGy/min), the average effective energy was 34.6+/-4.1 keV (30.5-42.5 keV). As a result, it was suggested that QA should be performed not only for patient dose but also for effective energy. QA of equipment is integral to maintaining consistently appropriate doses. Consequently, the dosimetry of each IVR unit should be regularly executed to estimate the outline of patient skin dose. It was useful to investigate patient skin dose/effective energy with the passive integrating dosimeter for IVR equipment.     

A preliminary analysis of LET effects in the dosimetry of proton beams using PRESAGE™ and optical CT

PRESAGE™ is a solid dosimeter based on a clear polyurethane matrix doped with radiochromic components (leuco dyes). On exposure to ionizing radiation a colour change is generated in the dosimeter, and hence an optical absorption or optical density change that can be read out by optical CT. The main focus of present investigations has been to investigate the possible LET dependence of PRESAGE™ to the dose deposited at the Bragg maxima using proton beam absorbed dose measurements, and the linearity of response of the dosimeter. Proton irradiations were performed using the proton beam facility at the Douglas Cyclotron, Clatterbridge Centre for Oncology (CCO) using a configuration that approximates the one routinely used in treatment of patients with ocular tumours. The samples were irradiated with both monoenergetic and modulated proton beams. Optical tomography measurements were carried out with our in-house CCD-based optical-CT system. Initial results for monoenergetic beams show that in PRESAGE™ the measured ratio of the Bragg peak dose to entrance dose is approximately 2:1 whereas the true value measured at CCO is approximately 5:1. For range-modulated proton beams, the absorbed dose close to the end of the proton range, i.e. at the Bragg peak, is underestimated by approximately 20% compared to the corresponding diode measurement. Further investigations are necessary to understand and quantify the effect of LET on PRESAGE™, and to measure the uncertainties related to our optical CT.     

N-isopropylacrylamide gel dosimeter to evaluate clinical photon beam characteristics

The introduction of beam intensity control concept in current radiotherapy techniques has increased treatment planning complexity. Thus, small-field dose measurement has become increasingly vital. Polymer gel dosimetry method is widely studied. It is the only dose measurement tool that provides 3D dose distribution. This study aims to use an N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) gel dosimeter to conduct beam performance measurements of percentage depth dose (PDD), beam flatness, and symmetry for photon beams with field sizes of 3×3 and 4×4 cm². Computed tomography scans were used to readout the gel dosimeters. In the PDD measurement, the NIPAM gel dosimeter and Gafchromic^TM EBT3 radiochromic film displayed high consistency in the region deeper than the build-up region. The gel dosimeter dose profile had 3% lower flatness and symmetry measurement at 5 cm depth for different fields compared with that of the Gafchromic^TM EBT3 film. During gamma evaluation under 3%/3 mm dose difference/distance-to-agreement standard, the pass rates of the polymer gel dosimeter to the TPS and EBT3 film were both higher than 96%. Given that the gel is tissue equivalent, it did not exhibit the energy dependence problems of radiochromic films. Therefore, the practical use of NIPAM polymer gel dosimeters is enhanced in clinical dose verification.