Off-label medication use in adult critical care patients

Purpose

This study evaluated the use of off-label medications in the intensive care unit (ICU) setting and their varying levels of evidence.

Materials and Methods

Thirty-seven ICUs from 24 US sites participated in this prospective, multicenter, observational study during a single 24-hour period. All medication orders were evaluated for Food and Drug Administration-labeled indications, strength of evidence, and strength of recommendation. Off-label medication orders were evaluated for indication, dose, route of administration, duration of therapy, and whether they were supported by institutional guidelines.

Results

A total of 414 patients were enrolled, yielding 5237 medication orders for analysis. Of these, 1897 orders (36.2%) were off-label. The 3 drug classes that accounted for the most off-label orders were bronchorespiratory, gastrointestinal, and immunology. The majority of off-label medication orders (89.1%) were initiated after patient admission to the ICU. Nine hundred twenty-eight (48.3%) of the off-label medication orders had grade C or no evidence.

Conclusions

The use of off-label medication therapies in the US adult critical care units is common, a majority of which are initiated after admission to the ICU and a significant portion of which are supported with inferior levels of evidence.     

Medication reconciliation: developing and implementing a program

During the past 5 years since the medication reconciliation process was formalized and automated, it has become an independent redundancy. The patient intervention rates are maintained at 30% to 35%, with ADE rates related to medication reconciliation at zero. The medication process takes into account the accuracy and appropriateness of restarting prehospital medications and current ICU medications. It includes the omission of important home medications along with inaccuracies of dosages and frequencies. This form assures that the patient is receiving continuity of care ad decreases complications of the patients health related to the changing of medications. Until recently this concept was disseminated by the staff without consistent administrative support. It was a process developed by nurses and perpetuated by nurses. Recently the administration has mandated that the process be implemented throughout the institution. A Hopkins health care-based collaborative is working to implement medication reconciliation hospital wide. The challenge exists in standardizing a process that is now specific to each functional unit. Multidisciplinary monthly meetings provided a forum for working through the barriers to incorporate these changes. This low-cost, high-impact safely initiative, if planned and performed strategically, can have a significant effect on patient safety.     

Perspectives From Academic and Practice Leaders on Nursing Student's Education and Role in Medication Reconciliation

Background

Medication reconciliation is a complex process that occurs during hospitalization at admission, transfer and discharge and at each outpatient clinic visit. Despite numerous quality improvement initiatives implemented by healthcare facilities nationwide to refine the process, medication errors still occur. Medication reconciliation processes are institution specific and undergo constant refinement. Few reports are available on the nursing student's role in this contemporary safety process.

Inpatient medication reconciliation at admission and discharge: A retrospective cohort study of age and other risk factors for medication discrepancies

Background: Medication discrepancies are unintended differences between medication regimens (ie, between a patient's home regimen and medications prescribed on admission to the hospital).Objective: The goal of this study was to describe the incidence, drug classes, and probable importance of hospital admission medication discrepancies and discharge regimen differences, and to determine whether factors such as age and specific hospital services were associated with greater frequency of medication discrepancies and differences.Methods: This was a retrospective cohort study of a random sample of adult patients admitted to the general medicine, cardiology, or general surgery services of a tertiary care academic teaching hospital between July 1, 2006, and August 31, 2006. A chart review was performed to collect the following information: patient demographic characteristics, comorbid conditions, number of preadmission medications, discrepant medications identified by the hospital's reconciliation process, reasons for the discrepancies, and discharge medications that differed from the home regimen. Potentially high-risk discrepancies and differences were identified by determining if the medications were included on either the Institute for Safe Medication Practices high-alert list or the North Carolina Narrow Therapeutic Index list. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to identify factors associated with medication discrepancies and differences.Results: Of the 205 patients (mean age, 59.9 years; 116 men, 89 women; 60% white) included in the study, 27 did not have any medications recorded on admission. Of the 178 patients who did have medications listed, 41 had ≥1 discrepancy identified by the reconciliation process on admission (23%; 95% CI, 17–29); 19% (95% CI, 11–31) of these medications were considered to be potentially high risk. In the multivariate logistic regression model, age (odds ratio [OR] per 5-year increase = 1.16; 95% CI, 1.01–1.33; P = 0.035), presence of high-risk medications on admission (OR = 76.68; 95% CI, 9.13–643.76; P < 0.001), and general surgery service (OR = 3.31; 95% CI, 1.40–7.87; P < 0.007) were associated with a higher proportion of patients with discrepancies on admission. At discharge, 196 patients (96% [95% CI, 93<98]) had ≥1 medication change from their home regimen, with 1102 total differences for 205 patients. Less than half (44% [95% CI, 37–51]) of these patients were explicitly alerted at discharge to new medications or dose changes; 12% (95% CI, 7–18) were given written instructions to stop taking discontinued home medications. Cardiovascular drugs were the most frequent class involved at both admission (31%) and discharge (27%) in medication discrepancies or differences.Conclusions: Medication discrepancies on admission and medication differences at discharge were prevalent for adult patients admitted to the general medicine, cardiology, and general surgery services in this academic teaching hospital. Medication reconciliation processes have a high potential to identify clinically important discrepancies for all patients.     

Long-term outcome in ICU patients: what about quality of life?

Objective Analysis of mortality and quality of life (QOL) after intensive care unit (ICU) discharge.Design Prospective, observational study.Setting Mixed, 31-bed, medico-surgical ICU.Patients Consecutive adult ICU admissions between June 25 and September 10, 2000, except admissions for uncomplicated elective postoperative surveillance.Interventions None.Measurements and results Age, past history, admission APACHE II, SOFA score (admission, maximum, discharge), ICU and hospital mortality were recorded. A telephone interview employing the EuroQol 5D system was conducted 18 months after discharge. Of 202 patients, 34 (16.8%) died in the ICU and 23 (11.4%) died in the hospital after ICU discharge. Of the 145 patients discharged alive from hospital, 22 could not be contacted and 27 (13.4%) had died after hospital discharge. Of the 96 patients (47.5%) who completed the questionnaire, 38% had a worse QOL than prior to ICU admission, but only 8.3% were severely incapacitated. Twenty-three patients (24%) had reduced mobility, 15 (15.6%) had limited autonomy, 24 (25%) had alteration in usual daily activities, 29 (30.2%) expressed more anxiety/depression, and 42 (44%) had more discomfort or pain. Twenty-eight (62.2% of those who worked previously) patients had returned to work 18 months after ICU discharge.Conclusions Comparing QOL after discharge with that before admission, patients more frequently report worse QOL for the domains of pain/discomfort and anxiety/depression than for physical domains. Factors commonly associated with a change in QOL were previous problems in the affected domains, prolonged hospital length of stay (LOS), greater disease severity at admission and degree of organ dysfunction during ICU stay.     

ICU nurses' perceptions of discharge planning: a preliminary study.

The role that intensive care unit (ICU) nurses could play in hospital discharge planning remains relatively unexplored. Using a case study, all ICU nurses in one hospital were surveyed about their perceptions of their role in the discharge process. Over 70% of the 58 nurses who responded thought that discharge planning was both appropriate in the ICU and not premature. However, several obstacles including patient acuity, time constraints and limited experience with this process were evident. While ICU nurses are aptly placed to manage discharge planning, they cannot be expected to undertake this important role without a systematic approach to its implementation.     

The cardiac surgical patient's expectations and experiences of nursing care in the intensive care unit.

There is an abundance of research investigating patient satisfaction. However, few studies have addressed patient satisfaction by comparing patients' expectations of nursing care with the care they actually received. This qualitative study explores both cardiac surgical patients' preconceptions and expectations of nursing care in the intensive care unit (ICU) and their actual experience of nursing care while in the unit. Data were collected using a semistructured interview technique. Interviews took place prior to admission and following discharge from ICU, and were taped and transcribed. Using thematic analysis, major and minor themes emerged from the data. The preoperative interviews revealed that participants had clear expectations of the nurse's role in ICU. They expected the nurse who cared for them to be capable, intelligent, experienced and technically adept. Further, they wanted a nurse who would be vigilant and provide them with personalised care. Participants understood they would be vulnerable and looked to the nurse to help them through this period. Post-operative interviews revealed that when participants perceived vigilance or experienced personalised care from the nurses they felt reassured and secure. However, patients also described feelings of anxiety, apprehension, fear and other unexpected experiences, notably confusion and hallucinations. Recommendations suggest that modification to pre-operative patient education programs could lead to a reduction in anxiety in the post-operative period. They also highlight the importance, to the patients, of nurse caring activities. In addition, the findings suggest a need for staff education that addresses patient anxiety and post-operative psychological disturbances.     

Risk factors for discharge on a new antipsychotic medication after admission to an intensive care unit

PurposeIncreased awareness of delirium in the intensive care unit (ICU) has led to higher use of antipsychotic medications for treatment of delirium. These medications are often not discontinued at ICU or hospital discharge, which may increase the risk of inappropriate polypharmacy. Our study sought to identify risk factors for being discharged on a new antipsychotic medication after admission to a trauma-surgical ICU or neurocritical care unit.MethodsThis was a retrospective cohort study at an academic medical center and included patients who were admitted to the trauma-surgical ICU or neurocritical care unit and received an antipsychotic medication. Those younger than 18 years, died before hospital discharge, or did not have complete documentation were excluded.ResultsA total of 341 records were included in the final analysis. Of those, 82 (24%) were discharged on a new antipsychotic and 67% of those patients had no documented indication. Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (odds ratio, 1.030 [95% confidence interval, 1.030-1.110]) and days treated with benzodiazepines (odds ratio, 1.101 [95% confidence interval, 1.060-1.143]) were independently associated with being discharged on a new antipsychotic medication.ConclusionsThose patients with higher Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II scores and more benzodiazepine days are at increased odds of being discharged on a new antipsychotic.     

Demographic and clinical determinants of having do not resuscitate orders in the intensive care unit of a comprehensive cancer center

To understand the needs of patients and family members as physicians communicate their expectations about patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), we evaluated the demographic and clinical determinants of having a Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) order for adults with cancer. Patients included were admitted from June 16, 2008-August 16, 2008, to the ICU in a comprehensive cancer center. We conducted a prospective chart review and collected data on patient demographics, length of stay, advance directives, clinical characteristics, and DNR orders. A total of 362 patients met the inclusion criteria; only 15.2% had DNR orders before ICU discharge. In the multivariate analysis, we found that medical admission was an independent predictor of having a DNR order during the ICU stay (odds ratio = 3.65; 95% confidence interval, 1.44-9.28); we also found a significant two-way interaction between race/ethnicity and type of admission (medical vs. surgical) with having a DNR order (p =?.04). Although medical admissions were associated with significantly more DNR orders than were surgical admissions, we observed that the subgroup of non-white patients admitted for medical reasons was significantly less likely to have DNR orders. This finding could reflect different preferences for aggressive care by race/ethnicity in patients with cancer, and deserves further investigation.     

From hospital to home healthcare: the need for medication reconciliation

Medication reconciliation is a process of comparing medications being used by a client to a current list of prescribed medications to verify its accuracy, and is a best-practice strategy to reduce medication errors. In home healthcare, medication reconciliation includes comparing medications specified in hospital discharge instructions, those taken before the hospitalization, and those now taken by the client, and documenting action taken to resolve discrepancies noted. This exploratory study was designed to describe the adequacy of medication reconciliation in a Midwestern home healthcare agency.     

Use of the 'BRASS' to identify ICU patients who may have complex hospital discharge planning needs

Intensive care unit (ICU) transition programmes and discharge liaison nurse roles have emerged because the move from the ICU to the general wards has been found to be problematic for patients, their families and even health care professionals As these programmes are costly, it is essential that they are delivered to those for whom positive outcomes are most likely to be achieved. This paper reports on the use of the Blaylock Risk Assessment Screening Score (BRASS) to identify ICU patients who are at risk of complex hospital discharge needs Use of BRASS at admission was not particularly specific: that is, it was not able to identify consistently those at risk of prolonged ICU and hospital stay and ICU readmission. BRASS was fairly sensitive, correctly identifying over 95% of individuals who did not have a prolonged hospital stay BRASS is easy to use, but may be no better than severity of illness scoring systems in identifying ICU patients who potentially have complex hospital discharge planning needs; if used, it should not be completed on ICU admission alone.     

Nurse Practitioner's Geriatric Practice in Japanese Postacute Care Setting

The quality of comprehensive geriatric assessment and medication reconciliation by a nurse practitioner (NP) based in Japan was evaluated by a prospective observational study. Within the 64 inpatients seen by the NP at a postacute care clinic, the achievement rate of 8 comprehensive geriatric assessment items was 93.8%, compared with just 33.8% in the nearby hospital (P < .05). The average volume and the number of types of medication on admission (9.2 and 4.7) and discharge (7.6 and 4.6) tended to decrease without statistical significance. NPs were suggested to have benefits toward geriatric care that may allow for much-needed task shifting in Japan.     

Aggressive disease, aggressive treatment: the adult hematopoietic stem cell transplant patient in the intensive care unit

Hematopoietic stem cell transplant is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Transplant is often the only curative therapy for cancers such as leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma. Between 40% and 80% of patients who receive transplant become long-term survivors, and intensive care unit (ICU) admission rates are between 24% and 44% during the peritransplant period. The aggressive nature of hematopoietic stem cell transplant has a drastic impact on the physical and emotional state of the patient and family. From the day of diagnosis of any blood cancer, patients and families are faced with decisions and challenges ranging from quality of life and mortality to insurance coverage and financial concerns. The purpose of this article is to provide the experienced ICU nurse with background on the hematopoietic stem cell transplant process as a basis for interventions that can improve patient- and family-centered care, to provide tools that improve the transitions between the transplant and ICU teams, and to support communication between nursing teams for patients who survive the ICU stay and for those at the end of life. Collaboration between 2 separate nursing units can result in exceptional care for this complex patient population.     

Medication problems occurring at hospital discharge among older adults with heart failure

Medication reconciliation problems are common among older adults at hospital discharge and lead to adverse events. The purpose of this study was to examine the rates and types of medication reconciliation problems among older adults hospitalized for acute episodes of heart failure who were discharged home. This secondary analysis of data generated from a transitional care intervention included 198 hospital discharge medical records, representing 162 patients. A retrospective chart review comparing medication lists between hospital discharge summaries and patient discharge instructions was completed to identify medication reconciliation problems. Most hospital discharges (71.2%) had at least one type of reconciliation problem and frequently involved a high-risk medication (76.6%). Discrepancies were the most common problem (58.9%), followed by incomplete discharge summaries (52.5%) and partial patient discharge instructions (48.9%). More attention needs to be given to the quality of discharge instructions, and the problem of vague phrases (e.g., "take as directed") can be addressed by adding it to "do not use" lists to promote safer transitions in care.     

中国重症加强治疗病房危重患者安全性现状的多中心前瞻性调查分析

目的多中心调查中国重症加强治疗病房（ICU）医疗错误发生现状及原因。方法于2006年10月23日-12月23日，选择全国8家三级甲等教学医院进行ICU患者医疗安全性调查，各中心由一名主治医师和护士长负责此项研究。除客观记录ICU错误（包括：①分类：诊断、药物治疗、操作、观察、其他；②性质：并发症、紧急抢救、医护人员工作能力不足、工作疏忽、其他性质；③后果：无严重影响、引起生命体征波动、呼吸功能损害、循环波动、产生器官损害、死亡）外，ICU床位数、医师／护士人数，调查期间收治危重患者数及每例患者疾病严重程度、急性生理学与慢性健康状况评分系统Ⅱ（APACHEⅡ）评分、发生ICU错误患者数以及发生错误的医师／护士学历、职称、工作年限均予以记录。结果8个参研单位中有3个中心调查结果与实际ICU错误发生情况不符合而将调查资料剔除。5个中心在调查期间共收治危重患者232例，1319个患者住院日。ICU错误发生总次数为296次，平均4．46例患者日发生1起ICU错误。错误涉及患者数为157例，占总患者数的67．6％，其中护理错误占74．3％，显著超过医疗错误。212次错误（占71．6％）未对患者产生严重影响，但有82起ICU错误引起了生命体征的波动。在引起ICU错误的原因中，APACHEⅡ评分≥20分患者医疗错误发生率显著增高。护理人力资源的短缺、低学历以及工作时间不足3年与护理错误发生率呈正相关。结论本次多中心调查结果显示：在中国高等级教学医院ICU内，危重患者正面临相对较高的医疗错误风险；患者疾病严重程度高、医护人员人力资源和能力不足与ICU错误发生的关系密切。     

The impact of a liaison nurse on ICU nurses' perceptions of discharge planning.

The objective of the study was to examine the impact of a discharge liaison nurse on intensive care unit (ICU) nurses' perceptions of discharge planning. The discharge liaison nurse coordinated the discharge of patients from ICU to the ward, assisted with hospital discharge, provided clinical teaching and support to both ICU and ward nurses and supported patients and families during hospitalisation. A block intervention design was used. All ICU nurses within one Australian teaching hospital were surveyed prior to and following the implementation of the discharge liaison nurse. Measures included the perceptions of discharge planning scale and the general perceived self-efficacy scale. Following implementation of the liaison nurse, less nurses perceived that discharge planning in the ICU was premature (chi2(2, n=117)=7.759, p=0.021) and that ICU nurses lack an understanding of the discharge planning process (chi2(2, n=118)=15.557, p<0.001). Discharge planning was more frequently seen as the responsibility of the bedside nurse (chi2(2, n=115) =15.270, p<0.005) but there was greater recognition of discharge planning as a time consuming process (chi2(2, n=117)=8.560, p=0.015). Self efficacy in relation to discharge planning did not change over time. Some support was found for the role of the discharge liaison nurse in promoting attitudinal change towards discharge planning in the ICU. Future research is needed to investigate the processes by which the liaison nurse fosters attitudinal change and to document the actual discharge planning practices undertaken in ICU.     

Nursing medication administration and workflow using computerized physician order entry

The benefits of computerized physician order entry systems have been described widely; however, the impact of computerized physician order entry on nursing workflow and its potential for error are unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of a computerized physician order entry system on nursing workflow. Using an exploratory design, nurses employed on an adult ICU (n = 36) and a general pediatric unit (n = 50) involved in computerized physician order entry-based medication delivery were observed. Nurses were also asked questions regarding the impact of computerized physician order entry on nursing workflow. Observations revealed total time required for administering medications averaged 8.45 minutes in the ICU and 9.93 minutes in the pediatric unit. Several additional steps were required in the process for pediatric patients, including preparing the medications and communicating with patients and family, which resulted in greater time associated with the delivery of medications. Frequent barriers to workflow were noted by nurses across settings, including system issues (ie, inefficient medication reconciliation processes, long order sets requiring more time to determine medication dosage), less frequent interaction between the healthcare team, and greater use of informal communication modes. Areas for nursing workflow improvement include (1) medication reconciliation/order duplication, (2) strategies to improve communication, and (3) evaluation of the impact of computerized physician order entry on practice standards.