小腿前外侧岛状皮瓣修复胫骨外露的解剖研究与临床应用

目的 探讨小腿前肌间隔动脉链为蒂的岛状皮瓣修复胫骨外露的术式及手术方法.方法 40侧成人尸体下肢标本经动脉灌注红色乳胶,4侧新鲜成人尸体下肢标本动脉造影,观测小腿前肌间隔内的胫前动脉穿支与腓动脉终末前穿支的位置、走行、外径及相互吻合.临床应用小腿前外侧岛状皮瓣转位修复胫骨外露11例.男7例,女4例;年龄20～59岁,平均36岁.结果 40侧标本腓骨长度为(32.3±2.4)cm.胫前动脉发出腓浅动脉、胫前动脉下段前肌间隔穿支,与腓动脉终末前穿支在小腿前肌间隔内相互吻合,形成动脉链,这三条动脉外径分别为(1.4±0.4)mm、(1.0±0.4)mm及(1.5±0.4)mm,动脉链吻合处外径为(0.6±0.2)mm.动脉链伴腓浅神经走行,营养神经和小腿前外侧皮肤.临床应用小腿前外侧岛状皮瓣修复胫骨外露的11例中,以胫前动脉下段前肌间隔穿支为蒂2例,以胫前动脉下段前肌间隔穿支的升支为蒂3例,以胫前动脉下段前肌间隔穿支的降支为蒂3例,以腓动脉终末前穿支升支为蒂3例.皮瓣切取面积7 cm×5 cm～13 cm×5 cm.随访1～3年,平均1.5年,11例皮瓣全部成活,无破溃、臃肿.结论 根据皮肤缺损部位、面积等灵活选用小腿前肌间隔内动脉链为血管蒂,设计前外侧岛状皮瓣修复胫骨外露,术式灵活,是修复胫骨外露的理想皮瓣.

Abstract：

Objective To explore surgical methods of repairing tibial skin defect using the anterolateral crural island flap.Methods The location,external diameters,anastomosis and distribution of perforators from the anterior tibial artery and the peroneal artery in the anterior septum were observed in 40 cadaveric specimens.Arterial angiography was performed in 4 fresh legs.Clinically,11 cases with tibial skin defect were repaired with the anterolateral crural island flap.There were 7 males and 4 females,with an average of 36 years (20-59 years).The area of the skin defect ranged from 6 cm×4 cm to 12 cm×4 cm.Results An arterial chain was formed by the interconnection of the superficial peroneal artery,the anterior septocutaneous perforator from distal part of the anterior tibial artery and the anterior end-perforator of the peroneal artery.It ran in the anterior septum and went along with the superficial peroneal nerve to supply blood to adjacent fascia and skin.The external diameters of the three perforators were (1.4±0.4) mm,(1.0±0.4) mm and (1.5±0.4) mm respectively,and the external diameter of the arterial chain was (0.6±0.2) mm.Clinically,we designed 4 methods to repair 11 cases of tibial skin defect successfully with the anterolateral cnnal island flap.The anterior septocutaneous perforator from distal part of the anterior tibial artery was used as pedicle in 2 cases;ascending branch of the anterior septocutaneous perforator from distal part of the anterior tibial artery was used as pedicle in 3 cases;descending branch of the anterior septocutaneous perforator from distalpart of the anterior tibial artery was used as pedicle in 3 cases;ascending branch of the anterior end-perforator of the peroneal artery was used as pedicle in 3 cases.The area of the flaps ranged between 7 cm×5 cm and 13 cm×5 cm.All patients were followed up with a mean time of 1.5 years.All flaps survived totally without diabrosis and swelling.Conclusion The anterolateral island flaps pedicled with perforators arising from the anterior septum of the lower leg is a good choice for surgeons to repair tibial skin defect.     

两种岛状皮瓣修复拇指末节皮肤缺损疗效分析

[目的] 探讨示指背侧岛状皮瓣和拇指尺背侧岛状皮瓣修复拇指末节皮肤缺损的临床疗效.[方法] 2005 年1 月- 2008 年6 月,应用示指背侧顺行岛状皮瓣和拇指尺背侧岛状皮瓣修复拇指末节皮肤缺损48例,随机分为两组,其中示指背侧顺行岛状皮瓣组27例(指腹缺损17例、指端皮肤缺损4例、末节背侧皮肤缺损6例),拇指尺背侧岛状皮瓣组21例(指端皮肤缺损11例、指腹缺损6例、背侧皮肤缺损4例),术后对皮瓣的成活率、拇指的功能恢复、供区的影响进行了比较研究.[结果] 两组分别平均随访14.2、15.7个月,所有皮瓣全部成活,感觉恢复根据英国医学研究会评定标准,示指背侧岛状皮瓣组静态两点辨别觉为5～8mm;拇指尺背侧岛状皮瓣组静态两点辨别觉为6～10 mm,均达到S3+级以上,评分＞16.拇指指间关节活动与健侧比无明显差异.示指背侧岛状皮瓣修复拇指指端缺损的外形不如拇指尺背侧岛状皮瓣修复的效果好,且示指背侧供区游离植皮易于指背腱膜粘连,影响滑动,需术后配合功能练习和康复治疗.[结论] 示指背侧岛状皮瓣和拇指尺背侧岛状皮瓣血供安全、可靠,是修复拇指指背、指腹缺损的理想皮瓣,对于拇指指端缺损的修复,拇指尺背侧岛状皮瓣优于示指背侧岛状皮瓣,从对供区的影响角度看,拇指尺背侧皮瓣优于示指背侧岛状皮瓣.     

Effects of 360-degree pedicle torsion on island skin flaps: experimental study in rats

This study was carried out to observe the isolated effects of pedicle torsion on island skin flaps, without further damaging the pedicle. Twelve adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighting 240 to 300 gr, were used, and hexagonal flaps with edges measuring 1.5 cm and pedicles measuring 1 cm in length were raised in the inguinal region. The animals were divided into two groups. In Group A, flaps were re-sutured to the donor beds without any rotation. In Group B, flaps were rotated 360 degrees, applying the same degree of torsion to their pedicles before re-suturing. After 7 days, the percentage of surviving skin areas of the flaps was determined by planimetry, and transverse sections of the flaps and pedicles were taken and evaluated in terms of signs of arterial or venous insufficiency. Statistically significant differences between the groups were determined by analyses using the multiple comparisons test. Pedicle torsion in Group B did not affect flap viability, both macroscopically and microscopically. The presented study shows that 360-degree torsion applied to the pedicle of the flap in this model had no effect on flap viability.     

两种岛状皮瓣修复手指远节末端皮肤缺损的疗效比较

目的比较指固有动脉逆行岛状皮瓣和指固有动脉背侧穿支岛状皮瓣修复手指远节末端皮肤缺损的效果。方法将109例手指远节末端皮肤缺损患者根据修复方法不同分为逆行岛状皮瓣组(采用指固有动脉逆行岛状皮瓣修复,54例)和穿支岛状皮瓣组(采用指固有动脉背侧穿支岛状皮瓣修复,55例),比较两组皮瓣两点辨别觉及手指功能TAM评分。结果患者均获得随访,时间12~24(18.5±2.5)个月。皮瓣全部成活,伤口及供皮瓣区均一期愈合。手术时间、术中出血量、术后12个月皮瓣两点辨别觉及手指功能TAM评分两组比较差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。术后6个月,两组皮瓣外形及感觉均良好,质地柔软、耐磨、无触痛、耐寒冷;供区愈合好,外观平整,无瘢痕挛缩,主、被动活动良好。术后12个月两组手指功能TAM评分优良率比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论指固有动脉逆行岛状皮瓣和指固有动脉背侧穿支岛状皮瓣修复手指远节末端皮肤软组织缺损都是较理想的方法,临床操作中宜优先选用指固有动脉背侧穿支岛状皮瓣。     

Venous drainage in retrograde pedicle flaps: experimental study in rats

This study was performed to investigate the venous drainage in reverse island groin flaps in a rat model. Two groups of 10 rats were studied. All rats of group A had a groin reverse flap with a complete pedicle (artery and venae comitantes). In rats of group B, an arterial groin reverse flap (artery without venae comitantes) was performed. For the two groups, the perivascular tissue was excised. Nine flaps in the group A and seven flaps in the group B, survived without partial or complete necrosis. Microscopic examination showed venous dilatation in the two groups. There was no significant difference between the two groups. These results confirm that venous drainage of the arterial reverse flow flap without venae comitantes is performed by venae arteriosa. However, venae comitantes probably ensure venous drainage when they are respected.     

Stereomicroscopy as a diagnostic aid in evaluating the viability of island flaps: an experimental study

This study entailed direct stereomicroscopic observations of rat abdominal island flaps and the sequence of vascular events that occurred during and after occlusion by clamping of the individual femoral vessels for varying time intervals of up to 16 hours. The vascular changes and the status of the circulation in the flap vasculature, including the timing of complete hemal stasis and resumption of flow, following the application and subsequent release of the vessel clamp were observed and correlated with flap viability and behavior. This study also included a grading system of the vascular changes observed under a stereomicroscope. From these findings, it is suggested that in vivo stereomicroscopy may serve as a new and simple clinical tool for the early diagnosis of thrombosis at the site of microvascular anastomosis of a free flap transfer and may define time limits during which the anastomosis can be successfully corrected and the flap salvaged.     

Prefabrication of skin flaps using vein grafts: an experimental study in rabbits.

Prefabrication provides a new method for creating donor sites which are not limited by natural vascular territories. There are several methods for prefabrication, and these include implantation of greater omentum, blood vessels or muscle flaps. Based on the concept that an arterio-venous (A-V) shunt results in sufficient neovascularisation to support a free flap, we used a rabbit model to investigate the characteristics of these flaps. Prefabrication of an abdominal wall donor site was performed using the left epigastric vein in 20 male New Zealand white rabbits. An 8 x 10 cm skin flap was elevated 10 days after prefabrication, either as an island or a free flap. Survival of the skin flaps exceeded 93% and was independent of position of the vascular pedicle, direction of blood flow, or nature of the flap (island or free flap). Angiograms showed a very rich neovascularisation within the prefabricated flap.     

Effects of ozone gas on skin flaps viability in rats: an experimental study

Background: The main purpose of this study was to assess the effects of ozone gas on the viability of flaps for reconstruction and to determine the optimum application method. The antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and reperfusion effects of ozone gas have been previously assessed, and successful results have been reported. However, only one study has investigated the effect of ozone gas on flap viability. In the present study, it was hypothesised that the antioxidant and reperfusion effects of ozone gas would enhance flap viability.

Methods: Forty female Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups of 10 rats each. A cranial-based, 3?×?11?cm modified McFarlane flap including the panniculus carnosus was raised from the dorsum of a rat and re-sutured to its own bed using 3/0 sharp propylene. Group 1 (n?=?10): no pharmacological agent was used after the operation. Group 2 (n?=?10): vegetable (olive) oil group; vegetable-oil-impregnated gauze was used as a dressing for 7 days. Group 3 (n?=?10): Vegetable (olive) oil with ozone peroxide group; vegetable oil with ozone peroxide-impregnated gauze was used as a dressing for 7 days. Group 4 (n?=?10): Hemo-ozone therapy group; hemo-ozone therapy was applied rectally once every day for 7 days. All rats were sacrificed at the end of week 1 and assessed macroscopically and histopathologically.

Results: The proportion of substantive necrosis was less in group 4 than in the other three groups. Survival area ratios were better in groups 2 and 3 than in group 1; however, there was no significant difference between groups 2 and 3. No significant differences in the histopathological scores were observed among the groups.

Conclusion: Ozone gas enhanced flap viability. No differences in flap viability were observed between the vegetable oil and vegetable oil with ozone peroxide groups. The greatest benefit ratios were found in the hemo-ozone therapy group.     

Prefabrication of thin transferable axial-pattern skin flaps: an experimental study in rabbits.

The arteriovenous pedicle of all known axial-pattern skin flaps enters from the deep aspect and consequently the flap must contain fat and/or muscle and be of considerable thickness. In an attempt to fabricate a thinner axial-pattern flap the femoral artery and vein of rabbits were implanted, in various vascular configurations, directly into the subdermal layer of the skin. Implantation was found to provoke an extensive outgrowth of new vessels from the implanted artery and vein, and the progress and pattern of this neovascularisation was studied by carbon gelatine perfusion and histology. Neovascularisation begins within a few days of implantation and progresses rapidly. By 8 to 12 weeks it is possible to elevate regularly a viable, large skin flap based on the implanted pedicle.     

浅静脉干不同处理方法对远端带蒂皮瓣影响的实验研究

目的　探讨浅静脉干用不同处理方法后对远端带蒂皮瓣的影响。方法　将 2 0只新西兰大白兔建立成远端带小隐静脉腓肠神经筋膜蒂的岛状皮瓣动物模型。按手术先后随机分为 4组 ,每组 10个皮瓣。第 1组在蒂部保留小隐静脉干 (流入 ) ;第 2组在蒂部远端 1cm将小隐静脉干结扎 (阻断 ) ;第 3组在近端重新吻合小隐静脉干 (流出 ) ;第 4组仅在皮瓣表面切开 (渗出 )。结果　第 1、4组的小隐静脉压力较第 2组显著增高 ,且超过毛细血管动脉压。皮瓣存活率第 3组 (94.5 % )与第 1组 (2 2 .7% ) ,第 2组(5 5 .5 % )和第 4组 (2 4.0 % )相比 ,差异有非常显著意义 (t =8.77、10 .2 7、P <0 .0 0 1)。第 2组较第 1、4组皮瓣的存活率明显要高 (t =3 .70、2 .82 ,P <0 .0 1)。结论　在近端重建浅静脉流出通道或在远端阻断浅静脉血流灌入 ,均能显著提高远端蒂皮瓣的存活率     

Effect of postoperative irradiation on free skin flaps: an experimental study in rats.

The modern treatment of musculoskeletal malignant tumours often requires different combinations of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Although combination treatments have allowed reconstruction of more complex defects, the risk of complications also rises. In clinical series the complication rate is influenced by the characteristics of the defect and the quality of the radiation used. The flap survival is high, but the overall complication rate is more than 25%. In this study we looked at the healing of microvascular free skin flaps exposed to postoperative irradiation in a rat model. Epigastric microvascular free skin flap were exposed to a single dose of 20 Gy radiation one week postoperatively (n = 8). A comparison was made with free epigastric skin flaps without postoperative radiation (n = 8). The healing was assessed histologically at four weeks and by measuring the tensile strength of the wound. Biochemical total nitrogen and hydroxyproline contents were also measured. Results showed that histologically the interfaces healed similarly with only minimal histomorphological changes. Neither the mechanical strength of the healing interface nor the biochemical markers altered significantly. Postoperative irradiation with a single dose of 20 Gy does not affect the survival of free skin flaps in rats. In the future the model described could be used to study the effects of combination therapy of surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy more closely to find the optimal control of malignancies with limited damage to treated tissue.     

结扎伴行静脉对逆行岛状皮瓣存活的影响

目的 以新西兰大白兔隐动静脉逆行岛状皮瓣为实验模型,探讨结扎血管蒂伴行静脉干对逆行岛状皮瓣存活的影响.方法 将10只新西兰大白兔两侧后肢左右随机分为2组,每组10个皮瓣,进行同体对照.建立隐动静脉逆行岛状皮瓣实验模型(面积3 cm×3 cm,血管蒂长4 cm,血管蒂周围保留1 cm宽筋膜).对照组:血管蒂部不做任何处理;实验组:在放大10倍手术显微镜视下于血管蒂的两端分别结扎伴行静脉干,使2根伴行静脉干完全闭塞.术后每天观察皮瓣颜色、肿胀情况.术后1周测皮瓣成活率,并切取血管蒂进行组织学观察.结果 术后两组皮瓣均有较明显的肿胀,实验组皮瓣肿胀更为明显.两组皮瓣平均成活率比较,对照组为(92.7±12.1)%,实验组为(46.8±38.3)%,差异有统计学意义(t=3.61,P＜0.01).两组皮瓣蒂部均可见扩张的微血管,高度肿胀导致坏死的皮瓣,在其蒂部扩张的微血管内可见血栓形成.结论 血管蒂的伴行静脉结扎使皮瓣更易发生静脉危象,导致皮瓣坏死.微血管内血栓形成可能是导致皮瓣静脉回流障碍的又一重要因素.

Abstract：

Objective To evaluate the effect of ligating venae commutantes in the pedicle on the survival of reverse-flow island flaps. Methods Ten New Zealand rabbits were used. Reverse flow island flap based on the saphenous artery and vein was created on both hind limbs,with a total of 20 flaps. The size of the flap was 3 cm×3 cm with a 4 cm long vascular pedicle containing 1 cm strip of connective tissue. These flaps were randomly divided into 2 groups of 10 flaps each. In group Ⅰ,the vascular pedicle (1 saphenous artery and 2 venae commutantes) was raised and its sheath was not disturbed,maintaining communicating and collateral branches intact. In group Ⅱ,the 2 venae commutantes were ligated with 8-0 suture at both ends of the pedicle under 10X microscope and the connective tissue was maintained intact. The color and congestion of flaps were observed daily. Flap survival rate was measured after one week. The vascular pedicle was harvested and observed histologically. Results The flaps began to appear obviously swelling after blood oozing stopped. The extent of swelling was more severe in group Ⅱ than in group Ⅰ. Flap survival rate of group Ⅰ (92.7±12.1)% was significantly higher than that of group Ⅱ (46.8±38.3)% (t=3.61,P<0.01). Histological examination revealed lots of dilated venules in the vascular pedicle. The amount of dilated venules in group Ⅱ was more than that in group Ⅰ. Lots of thrombi could be seen in the dilated venules in the pedicle of completely or partially necrotic flaps. Conclusion Venous crisis takes place more easily in flaps without venae commutantes,resulting in flap necrosis. The venous thrombosis may be the other important influencing factor for necrosis of reverse-flow flaps.     

Comparison of venous drainage in reverse-flow island flaps: an experimental study of the rabbit saphenous fasciocutaneous flap

The mechanism of venous drainage in reverse-flow island flaps was investigated using the saphenous fasciocutaneous flap in New Zealand White rabbits. Ten animals were allocated into two groups of 10 flaps. In group I (left limb), the distal vascular pedicle (one saphenous artery and two venae comitantes) was not disturbed, maintaining the communicating and collateral branches intact. In group II (right limb), it was separated microsurgically from each other for 3 cm. Intravenous pressure was measured at 5, 15, 30, and 60 minutes after tourniquet release. The values of group II at 30 and 60 minutes were significantly lower (p<0.01) than those of group I. Ten days after flap elevation, the mean survival area of group I (95%) and group II (100%) was not significantly different. Histological examination of the vascular pedicle showed the saphenous veins in group II were more dilated than those of group I. These findings suggest that venous retrograde return in reverse-flow island flaps can be achieved more easily through a "direct incompetent valves route" than through a "circuitous communicating and collateral bypass route."     

两种手指逆行岛状皮瓣修复指远节软组织缺损的疗效比较

目的 分析两种手指逆行岛状皮瓣修复指远节软组织缺损的临床效果的异同、适应证和注意事项. 方法 从2000年1月至2008年7月,共收治500例514指远节软组织缺损,按照缺损面积分别采用同指侧方逆行岛状皮瓣(250例263指)和邻指侧方逆行岛状皮瓣(250例251指)修复.术后随访3～8年,比较两种皮瓣的修复范围、指蹼开大角度、皮瓣感觉等. 结果 500例514指皮瓣全部成活,术后随访按照皮瓣修复范围比较,邻指皮瓣(2.5 cm×5.0 cm)优于同指皮瓣(2.0 cm× 3.0 cm)(P＜0.05);按照指蹼开大角度(大于或等于30°)比较,同指皮瓣(229指)优于邻指皮瓣(166指)(P＜0.05);同指皮瓣的感觉恢复略好于邻指皮瓣(P＜0.05);按照远期效果比较,两者差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05). 结论 在手指远节小于2.0 cm× 2.5 cm软组织缺损,可选用同指皮瓣;超过2.0 cm×3.0cm软组织缺损,应选用邻指皮瓣.依据皮瓣修复面积首选邻指皮瓣;依据指蹼开大和感觉恢复首选同指皮瓣;依据手指灵活性,两种皮瓣均可.     

Verapamil improves survival of rat hyperemic island skin flaps

Inability to maintain cellular calcium homeostasis is a critical factor in the pathogenesis of cellular ischemic injury and may mediate oxygen radical release in the reperfusion period. We assessed the effect of the selective calcium channel blocker verapamil on the performance of rat hyperemic island skin flaps. Pretreatment with verapamil markedly improved survival of skin flaps after 6 hours of venous cross-clamping compared with animals receiving placebo only (99% vs 53.3%; p less than 0.01). Verapamil also prevented the formation of lipid peroxidation products and the depletion of the endogenous antioxidant glutathione, suggesting that the beneficial effect of verapamil is the result of protection against oxygen radical injury. After 12 hours of venous cross-clamping, verapamil did not improve survival of skin flaps despite protection against lipid peroxidation. Oxygen radical release is therefore a crucial event in the pathogenesis of skin flap necrosis after short-term ischemia but is of less significance in long-term ischemia.     

Neurovascular island skin flaps in the hand: functional and sensibility evaluations

The value of neurovascular island skin flap transfers for digit tip surfacing has been evaluated in 13 patients. A computer assisted sensory evaluation was carried out on six of the patients. All patients were satisfied with the procedure. Sensory acuity did not appear to diminish with time and sensory misreference was not a major functional problem. We suggest that the neurovascular island flap, when available, is still an excellent procedure for restoration of useful digit tip sensibility.     

Ischemic preconditioning of free muscle flaps: an experimental study

The aim of this study was to apply the hypothesis of ischemic preconditioning (IP) on free skeletal muscle (rat thigh flap). Five groups of Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 6) were used. In group A (control group), standard free autologous flap transfers were performed. Flaps in groups B and C underwent 4 and 6 h, respectively, of ischemia before transfer. In groups D and E, muscle flaps were preconditioned (3 x 10 min ischemia interrupted by 10 min of reperfusion, clip applied on the dissected artery of the flap) and subjected to 4 and 6 h, respectively, of ischemia before transfer. After 48 h of reperfusion, the muscle flaps were evaluated macroscopically as well as by histological and immunohystochemical staining. In group A, the viability was 100%, whereas in groups D and E the viability was 83.3% and 100%, respectively. Groups B and C had undergone macroscopically parceled to total necrosis, further confirmed by histological findings (fragmentation and disappearance of muscle striations, combined with tissue necrosis and intravascular thrombosis). The beneficial effect of IP demonstrated in the heart, liver, and small bowel extends to skeletal muscle, which can be used in free-flap transfers, if the transfer includes a long period of predictable ischemia.     

Venous drainage in retrograde island flap: An experimental study using fluorescence tracing technique

The pathway of venous drainage in retrograde island flaps was investigated by fluorescence tracing technique using the saphenous fasciocutaneous flap in New Zealand White rabbits. Forty animals were allocated into four groups according to the different times at 30 minutes (I), 24 hours (II), 72 hours (III), and 7 days (IV) after the operation. According to the different routes to give tracer, each group was further allocated into two subgroups of the artery injection and vein injection. For each animal, one hindlimb was assigned as the experimental side, the contralateral side as control without giving tracer. The erythrocytes were separated, labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), detected, and injected into the artery or vein. Subsequently, the flaps were harvested 5 seconds after injection and immediately frozen, sectioned, and observed under microscope. In group I and II, the fluorescence was observed mainly around the vessel adventitia of the vein and artery and tunica intima of the artery. In group III, there was weak fluorescence observed in the lumen of vein. In group IV, fluorescence was distributed principally in the lumen of the vein. In addition, fluorescence was not observed in the saphenous nerve in group I and there was mild fluorescence in the saphenous nerve in groups II, III, and IV. These findings suggest that the venous return is through “bypass route” in earlier period. In later period, the venous retrograde return is through “bypass route” and “incompetent valves route;” however, “incompetent valves route” becomes the main route. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc. Microsurgery 2010.     

Free and island skin flaps and myocutaneous flaps--report of 86 cases

From January 1979 to October 1986, 86 cases of soft tissue defect were repaired by skin and musculocutaneous flaps. Among them, 43 instances were free flaps and 43 instances were island flaps. Of these 86 flaps, 79 survived completely, 2 partially, and 5 failed. The sizes of the flaps ranged from 6 x 7 cm to 32 x 10 cm. In this paper, indication of operation and selection of the flaps were discussed.