Does the amount of formal care affect informal care? Evidence among over-60s in France

This paper investigates the causal effect of the amount of formal care used on the informal care received by formal care users. We use an original instrument for formal care volume based on local disparities (NUTS 3 level, 96 units) in the price of formal care. Using the French CARE survey, we use a two-part model to assess the effect of formal care on the extensive and the intensive margin of informal care. An increase in the amount of formal care is found to be associated with a small decrease in the probability of using informal care. Heterogeneity tests show that this negative effect is mainly driven by help for daily activities provided by women. At the intensive margin, informal care is not significantly affected by the amount of formal care. Reforms increasing subsidies for formal care can thus be suspected to have a limited effect on informal care arrangements.

     

Health care in the Netherlands

This article analyzes Dutch experiences of health care reform--in particular in primary care--with emphasis on lessons for current United States health care reforms. Recent major innovations were the introduction of private insurance based on the principles of primary care-led health care and including all citizens irrespective of their financial, employment, or health status; introduction of primary care collaboratives for out-of-hour services and chronic disease management; and primary care team building, including practice nurses. These innovations were introduced on top of a strong primary care tradition of family practices with defined populations based on patient panels, practice-based research, evidence-based medicine, large-scale computerization, and strong primary care health informatics. Dutch health reform redirected payment to support introduction of innovative health plans and strengthening of primary care to respond to public health objectives. Five recommendations for US primary care follow from this Dutch experience: (1) a private insurance model is compatible with thriving primary care, but it must include all people, especially the most vulnerable in society, and espouse a primary care-led health care system; (2) patient panels or practice lists strengthen continuity of care and community orientation to focus on and respond to local needs; (3) reward collaboration within primary care and between primary care, hospital care, and public health; (4) stimulate primary care professionals to exert their passion and expertise through participation in primary care research and development; and (5) health informatics should be primary care based, preferably adopting the International Classification of Primary Care. With these recommendations, it will be possible for the United States to obtain better population health for its population.     

Developing and financing a palliative care program

Although hospice care to assist the dying is widely available, palliative care, which focuses on living with chronic and life threatening illness and preparing the living for dying, is poorly understood. Only recently, palliative care has been mandated by the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations as a necessary intervention for facilities. Defining a palliative care model for the community hospital emphasizes total care for the patient beyond the traditional medical model. No specific Medicare reimbursement exists for palliative care in hospitals, and hospital administrators are generally not supportive of programs where no reimbursement exists. Developing a model palliative care program using a cost aversion financial model to quantify benefits of a palliative care programs is one strategy to address the reimbursement shortcomings.     

Applications of physician profiling in the management of primary care panels

A primary care panel is a conceptual and institutional unit, in managed care organizations, that holds an individual primary care physician or a team of primary care physicians accountable for the care of a defined population of enrollees. A persistent question in ambulatory care management is how to align, across a set of primary care panels, the distribution of demand for primary care physician time with the distribution of supply of primary care physician time. Part of the solution to this resource allocation decision requires measurement of primary care panel case mix (a principal influence on demand); and, part of the solution requires measurement of physician practice (an influence on both demand and supply). The goals of this article are several, among them, to outline the reasons research and development in this area are important for the successful functioning of a primary care panel system, and to illustrate how methods of physician profiling may be usefully applied toward evaluating and implementing solutions to the alignment of demand for, and supply of, primary care physician time.     

Managed behavioral health care provider practice patterns: a new item for the public policy agenda

Managed care is a dominating issue on the public policy agenda. Difficulties in defining and operationalizing it continue to have ramifications for the nation. It is often assumed that the care being reimbursed by managed care organizations is for clients whose psychiatric conditions have been appropriately diagnosed and treated. Based on the responses of a randomly-selected group from the major behavioral health care disciplines, not all care reimbursed is for care which has been appropriately diagnosed and treated. The cost implications of managed care and the ramifications for public health policy are discussed.     

The sensible health care professional: a care ethical perspective on the role of caregivers in emotionally turbulent practices

This article discusses the challenging context that health care professionals are confronted with, and the impact of this context on their emotional experiences. Care ethics considers emotions as a valuable source of knowledge for good care. Thinking with care ethical theory and looking through a care ethical lens at a practical case example, the authors discern reflective questions that (1) shed light on a care ethical approach toward the role of emotions in care practices, and (2) may be used by practitioners and facilitators for care ethical reflection on similar cases, in the particular and concrete context where issues around emotional experiences arise. The authors emphasize the importance of allowing emotions to exist, to acknowledge them and to not repress them, so that they can serve as a vehicle for ethical behavior in care practices. They stress the difference between acknowledging emotions and expressing them limitlessly. Formational practices and transformational research practices are being proposed to create moral space in care institutions and to support health care professionals to approach the emotionally turbulent practices they encounter in a way that contributes to good care for all those involved.     

Does informal care from children to their elderly parents substitute for formal care in Europe?

This paper analyzes the impact of informal care by adult children on the use of long-term care among the elderly in Europe and the effect of the level of the parent's disability on this relationship. We focus on two types of formal home care that are the most likely to interact with informal care: paid domestic help and nursing care. Using recent European data emerging from the Survey on Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), we build a two-part utilization model analyzing both the decision to use each type of formal care or not and the amount of formal care received by the elderly. Instrumental variables estimations are used to control for the potential endogeneity existing between formal and informal care. We find endogeneity of informal care in the decision to receive paid domestic help. Estimation results indicate that informal care substitutes for this type of formal home care. However, we find that this substitution effect tends to disappear as the level of disability of the elderly person increases. Finally, informal care is a weak complement to nursing care, independently of the level of disability. These results highlight the heterogeneous effects of informal care on formal care use and suggest that informal care is an effective substitute for long-term care as long as the needs of the elderly are low and require unskilled type of care. Any policy encouraging informal care to decrease long-term care expenditures should take it into account to assess its effectiveness.     

Client demands and the allocation of home care in the Netherlands. A multinomial logit model of client types,care needs and referrals

The purpose of this paper is to estimate the volume and composition of referrals to home care on the basis of applicant characteristics. The relationships between the background and care needs of applicant groups on the one hand and the referral of home care packages on the other, are studied by means of a multinomial logit model. The model is estimated on the basis of more than 7000 requests for home care in the northern part of the Netherlands. Home health care institutions have to deal with clients who arrive from many different branches of the health care system. As a result the services or products provided by home health care institutions are characterized by wide variation. In the modeling emphasis has, therefore, been placed on the differentiation of clients and products. We find for instance that elderly chronically ill applicants have a greater chance of being referred for domestic help only, while applicants with psychosocial disorders are more liable to be offered packages that include social support. Patients discharged from hospital have a greater chance of a referral to domestic help only when they are slightly disabled, and are more likely to be offered packages including physical care when they are more disabled. The model has a range of policy applications in assessing the impact of changes in the health care system on the volume and structure of the demand for home care services. Examples are presented of the consequences of the ageing population and earlier discharge from hospitals on demand for home care packages.     

Home hospitalization: background, current situation, and future prospects]

OBJECTIVE: To establish the different forms that the concept of home care has taken over time as a modality for providing health care, so as to contribute to the debate on the circumstances affecting health care management in the face of future challenges. METHODS: The literature is reviewed on home care as a method for delivering health care, by researching publications indexed during the period of 1995-2000 in three medical bibliographical databases: MEDLINE, LILACS (Latin American and Caribean Health Sciences) and the Indice Médico Espa?ol (Spanish Medical Index). RESULTS: Home hospitalization has developed differently over time in various countries, with an assortment of models for this type of care, each with its respective advantages and disadvantages. CONCLUSIONS: There are some criteria and proposals that could provide a framework for home care that is innovative, effective, and of high quality. Home care could help in the design and creation of a consensus on an organizational and financing model that fits in harmoniously between primary care and care in a hospital.     

中国失能老人照护模式选择及其影响因素分析--基于非正式照护与正式照护的关系

基于2014年中国老年健康影响因素跟踪调查数据,实证分析相关因素对中国失能老人选择照护模式的影响。结果显示,中国失能老人选择非正式照护较多,养老院照护和家政服务利用率较低。低龄、夫妻分离、城镇、重度失能、少子、子女距离较远、社区照护体系完善的失能老人对正式照护的利用率更高;非正式照护对家政服务有较强替代作用。建议在医养结合的基础上,建立“家庭养老院”,实现非正式照护与正式照护的整合,推进健康老龄化。     

高校新生视力保健知识-态度-行为的调查

[目的]了解高校新生的视力保健知识、态度和行为（KAB）状况,以便有针对性地进行视力健康教育。[方法]采用KAB问卷对柳州医学高等专科学校一年级的683名新生进行视力保健知识、态度以及行为的调查。[结果]高校新生的视力保健知识得分为73.43分,态度得分为67.09分,行为得分为49.12分,多数学生有良好的用眼卫生保健知识,但对营养、体育锻炼等对视力的影响却知道得较少;半数以上的学生有端正的视力保健态度,但却存在有明显的不正确行为,部分同学经常连续长时间用眼不休息、而且眼与书本的距离不够,有些学生在周末有长时间上网的不良习惯。[结论]高校新生视力保健知识、态度和行为有很大的差别,大部分学生掌握一定的视力保健知识、关心自己的视力健康,但大部分学生还没有养成良好的视力保健行为,视力保健健康教育亟待加强。     

A Declaration of Healthy Dependence: The Case of Home Care

Aging populations have become a major concern in the developed world and are expected to require novel care strategies. Public policies, health-care regimes and technology developers alike stress the need for a more individualized care to meet the increased demand for care services in response to demographic change. Increasingly, care services are offered to individuals with diseases and or disabilities in their homes by means of Personalized Health-Monitoring (PHM) technologies. PHM-based home care is typically portrayed as the key to a cost-effective future care that better can accommodate the needs of an aging population and promote care recipients’ independence. In light of the emerging technology-based home care, this article sets forth to investigate the significance and implications of a strong emphasis on independence in relation to this novel care form. Notions of independence as used by care planners, care providers and technology developers are examined in relation to ICT-based home care and the reasonableness of independence as an aim for future health-care is critically discussed. In conclusion, the need for a shift from a strong emphasis on independence to a right to healthy dependence is advocated.     

The redefinition of the familialist home care model in France: the complex formalization of care through cash payment

This article investigates the impact of policy measures on the organisation of home-based care for older people in France, by examining the balance between formal and informal care and the redefinition of the initial familialist model. It focuses on the specific cash for care scheme (the Allocation personnalisée d'autonomie - Personalised allowance for autonomy) which is at the core of the French home-based care policy. The author argues that in a redefined context of 'welfare mix', the French public strategy for supporting home-based care in France is articulated around two major objectives, which can appear contradictory. It aims to formalise a professional care sector, with respect to the employment policy while allowing the development of new forms of informal care, which cannot be considered to be formal employment. The data collection is two-fold. Firstly, a detailed analysis was made of different policy documents and public reports, together with a systematic review of existing studies. Secondly, statistical analysis on home-based care resources were collected, which was not easy, as home-care services for older people in France are part of a larger sector of activity, 'personal services' (services à la personne). The article exposes three main findings. First, it highlights the complexity of the formalisation process related to the introduction of the French care allowance and demonstrates that formalisation, which facilitates the recognition of care as work, does not necessarily mean professionalisation. Second, it outlines the diversity of the resources available: heterogeneous professional care, semi-formal forms of care work with the possibility to employ a relative and informal family care. Finally, the analysis outlines the importance of the regulation of cash payments on the reshaping of formal and informal care and comments on its impact on the redefinition of informal caring activities.     

The Content of Prenatal Care and Its Relationship to Preterm Birth in Alberta,Canada

Prenatal care is universally acknowledged as the hallmark of preventive care for pregnant women, and it is commonly assumed to have a positive influence on birth outcomes. The results of studies that have examined the impact of prenatal care on adverse birth outcomes, however, have been equivocal. These investigations have focused primarily on initiation of prenatal care and its timing, and not on the content of care received. Using data obtained from maternal self-reports and an electronic perinatal database, we examined the relationship between selected components of prenatal care (i.e., medical management, health education, and health advice) and the birth of a preterm infant. We found that health care providers are meeting the clinical guidelines for the medical management of pregnancy, but they are not adequately meeting pregnant women's needs for health education and advice. We found no association between the content of prenatal care and the birth of a preterm infant. Prenatal care must focus more on providing health education and advice to pregnant women.     

The Financial Implications of Availability and Quality of a Usual Source of Care for Children with Special Health Care Needs

Objective To examine the relationship of availability and quality of a usual source of care (USC) to medical expenditures overall and for various types of health care services for children with special health care needs (CSHCN), as a group and by four diagnostic subgroups (asthma, non-asthmatic physical conditions, mental retardation, other mental illnesses). Methods Generalized linear models were used to estimate the annual average per capita medical expenditures (APCME) based on data from 820 CSHCN in the 1995 National Health Interview Survey on Disability and 1996 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. Results In 1996, 92% of non-institutionalized CSHCN in the United States had a USC. Of these, 52% were classified as receiving accessible care, 95% received comprehensive care, and 69% received satisfactory care. Approximately 89% of CSHCN had expenditures on health care in 1996 and the APCME was $1,344 for CSHCN as a group. Having a USC was associated with higher expenditures overall and for almost all types of health care services for CSHCN across conditions. Receiving comprehensive care was associated with lower total medical expenditures for CSHCN with asthma, whereas receiving satisfactory care was associated with higher total medical expenditures for CSHCN with non-asthma physical conditions. Conclusion Having a regular care provider is associated with higher expenditures for CSHCN across diagnosis. Among CSHCN with a USC, quality of care is associated with medical expenditures, although specific associations vary by the quality characteristic and the condition of the child. These results may mask heterogeneity in severity of condition and quality of care over time.     

Long-term care policy in Hong Kong: challenges and future directions

In comparison to residential care services, home and community care services in Hong Kong remain underfunded and underdeveloped. The government's long-term care policies have resulted in an overreliance on subsidized long-term care services in the form of institutional care services. The quality of services offered by private residential care facilities is a cause for concern. Population aging, evolving family structures, and changes in residential living patterns are expected to continue to put a strain on resources for services for the elderly in the near future. This article provides an overview of the many issues surrounding long-term care in Hong Kong and offers potential directions for the future development of long-term care services.     

Managed care and mental health: personal realities

A review of the literature revealed mixed reviews on the impact of managed care on mental health service delivery. Research supports that managed care contributes to a reduction in inpatient costs and an increase in outpatient service use. Other studies suggest that there are problems with access and quality of care. An additional issue is whether or not, and to what extent, mental health services are "carved out" from physical health for patients. This study discusses the findings of a qualitative analysis of Medicaid managed care recipients on the barriers and enabling factors to obtaining mental health services in a full carve-out managed care model. Results indicate that reduced access, quality of care problems, and a lack of integration of care exist. Additionally, recipients' interactions with managed care, service providers, and caseworkers affect their mental health care. The results also report on the tactics used by recipients to cope with service problems. Implications for social work practice and research are discussed and recommendations for service delivery and evidence-based education are delineated.     

The impact of improved access to after-hours primary care on emergency department and primary care utilization: A systematic review

Access to after-hours primary care is problematic in many developed countries, leading patients to instead visit the emergency department for non-urgent conditions. However, emergency department utilization for conditions treatable in primary care settings may contribute to emergency department overcrowding and increased health system costs. This systematic review examines the impact of various initiatives by developed countries to improve access to after-hours primary care on emergency department and primary care utilization. We performed a systematic review on the impact of improved access to after-hours primary and searched CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE, and Scopus. We identified 20 studies that examined the impact of improved access to after-hours primary care on ED utilization and 6 studies that examined the impact on primary care utilization. Improved access to after-hours primary care was associated with increased primary care utilization, but had a mixed effect on emergency department utilization, with limited evidence of a reduction in non-urgent and semi-urgent emergency department visits. Although our review suggests that improved access to after-hours primary care may limit emergency department utilization by shifting patient care from the emergency department back to primary care, rigorous research in a given institutional context is required before introducing any initiative to improve access to after-hours primary care.     

The content of prenatal care and its relationship to preterm birth in Alberta, Canada

Prenatal care is universally acknowledged as the hallmark of preventive care for pregnant women, and it is commonly assumed to have a positive influence on birth outcomes. The results of studies that have examined the impact of prenatal care on adverse birth outcomes, however, have been equivocal. These investigations have focused primarily on initiation of prenatal care and its timing, and not on the content of care received. Using data obtained from maternal self-reports and an electronic perinatal database, we examined the relationship between selected components of prenatal care (i.e., medical management, health education, and health advice) and the birth of a preterm infant. We found that health care providers are meeting the clinical guidelines for the medical management of pregnancy, but they are not adequately meeting pregnant women's needs for health education and advice. We found no association between the content of prenatal care and the birth of a preterm infant. Prenatal care must focus more on providing health education and advice to pregnant women.     

Organization of ambulatory care provision: a critical determinant of health system performance in developing countries

Success in the provision of ambulatory personal health services, i.e. providing individuals with treatment for acute illness and preventive health care on an ambulatory basis, is the most significant contributor to the health care system's performance in most developing countries. Ambulatory personal health care has the potential to contribute the largest immediate gains in health status in populations, especially for the poor. At present, such health care accounts for the largest share of the total health expenditure in most lower income countries. It frequently comprises the largest share of the financial burden on households associated with health care consumption, which is typically regressively distributed. The "organization" of ambulatory personal health services is a critical determinant of the health system's performance which, at present, is poorly understood and insufficiently considered in policies and programmes for reforming health care systems. This article begins with a brief analysis of the importance of ambulatory care in the overall health system performance and this is followed by a summary of the inadequate global data on ambulatory care organization. It then defines the concept of "macro organization of health care" at a system level. Outlined also is a framework for analysing the organization of health care services and the major pathways through which the organization of ambulatory personal health care services can affect system performance. Examples of recent policy interventions to influence primary care organization--both government and nongovernmental providers and market structure--are reviewed. It is argued that the characteristics of health care markets in developing countries and of most primary care goods result in relatively diverse and competitive environments for ambulatory care services, compared with other types of health care. Therefore, governments will be required to use a variety of approaches beyond direct public provision of services to improve performance. To do this wisely, much better information on ambulatory care organization is needed, as well as more experience with diverse approaches to improve performance.