儿童常见肾脏疾病诊治循证指南(试行)(七):泌尿系感染诊断治疗指南

一、前言 泌尿系感染(UTI)是儿科常见的感染性疾病之一[1],且婴幼儿UTI常合并膀胱输尿管反流(VUR)等先天性尿路畸形(VUR在婴幼儿发热性UTI中可高达20%～40%).VUR和反复UTI可导致持续性的肾脏损害和瘢痕化,从而可能引起高血压和慢性肾衰竭.早期发现和诊断婴幼儿UTI,并给予合理处置尤为重要.为规范我国儿童UTI的诊断和治疗,中华医学会儿科学分会肾脏病学组起草本指南试行稿,旨在反映当前最佳临床实践证据,为临床儿科医生提供符合我国国情的、可操作性的中国儿童UTI诊断和治疗的参考方案.     

儿童常见肾脏疾病诊治循证指南(试行)解读(七):泌尿系感染诊断治疗

泌尿系感染(UTI)是儿科常见的感染性疾病之一,6岁以内儿童UTI累计发病率女孩为6.6%,男孩为1.8%[1-2],且婴幼儿UTI常合并膀胱输尿管反流(VUR)(可高达20%～50%).VUR和反复UTI可导致持续性的肾脏损害和瘢痕化,从而可能引起高血压和慢性肾功能衰竭.因而,重视儿童UTI的早期发现和诊断,并给予合理处置尤为重要.     

儿童原发性膀胱输尿管反流诊治现状及建议

膀胱输尿管反流是引起婴幼儿泌尿系统感染的最主要原因,其导致的反流性肾病约30%可发展至慢性肾衰竭,是儿童终末期肾病的常见原因。早期诊断、规范治疗和随访是预防膀胱输尿管反流患儿肾功能发生损伤的关键,现就儿童原发性膀胱输尿管反流作一介绍,以期对此疾病诊治有所帮助。     

儿童泌尿道感染影像学检查进展

泌尿道感染 (UTI)为儿科常见病 ,据报道 11岁以下儿童发病率达 1%～ 3%。其中以急性肾盂肾炎 (APN )最受临床重视 ,反复肾实质感染所致的瘢痕形成远期会导致儿童高血压、蛋白尿及肾功能衰竭等严重后果 ,而且临床及实验室评价肾感染又常不可靠 ;此外 ,已知膀胱输尿管返流(VUR)是诱发UTI和UTI复发的主要危险因素。因此 ,对UTI患儿了解肾损害及检测有否VUR最为重要 ,而影像学检查对此有重要价值。现就儿童泌尿道感染影像学检查进展做一综述。1　肾实质损害评价———APN及肾瘢痕的检测APN患儿 ,尤其婴幼儿临床症状及体征缺乏特异性 …     

儿童泌尿道感染诊治规范

泌尿道感染(UTI)是儿童最常见的感染性疾病之一。儿童UTI的临床症状可不典型,需结合尿沉渣分析与尿细菌学检查诊断,必要时需完善影像学评估有无泌尿系统发育畸形等。一旦诊断UTI需给予敏感抗菌药物治疗,抗菌药物选择应结合患儿一般情况、所在地区耐药发生率、既往用药史、尿细菌学药敏结果综合判断。此外,UTI并膀胱输尿管反流的...     

NGAL在急性肾损伤与泌尿系统感染患儿血及尿中的改变及临床意义

目的 探讨儿童不同程度急性肾损伤(acute kidney injury,AKI)患儿和泌尿系统感染患儿和中性粒细胞明胶酶相关脂质运载蛋白(neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin,NGAL)在血及尿中的改变,以明确NGAL在儿童AKI诊断中的意义.方法 根据儿童AKI诊断标准,将入选患儿分别纳入AKI-R、I和F组,将同时期收治的儿童泌尿系统感染(urinary tract infection,UTI)患儿和儿童保健门诊患儿分别纳入UTI组和正常对照组.采用ELISA方法检测血和尿NGAL,尿NGAL与尿肌酐的比值作为尿NGAL的最后结果.结果 2009年6月至2010年12月收入到儿科肾脏病房的儿童AKI入选患儿共85例,AKI-R组42例,AKI-I组26例,AKI-F组17例.同期收治的儿童UTI组患儿51例,对照组儿童保健门诊入选患儿30例.AKI-I和AKI-F组SCr值明显高于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.001);AKI-R、I、F组血NGAL值均明显高于和正常对照组,差异有统计学意义(P ＜0.001);AKI-R、I、F组和UTI组患儿尿NGAL值均明显高于正常对照组,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.001).AKI-I和F组患儿血和尿NGAL均和SCr值有相关性(P ＜0.001).结论 血和尿NGAL在AKI患儿中明显升高,且敏感性好于SCr.泌尿系统感染患儿尿NGAL升高,但升高的程度低于较重的AKI患儿,而血NGAL未见明显升高.在AKI-I和F组患儿血和尿NGAL均和SCr值有相关性.因此,NGAL对于儿童AKI的早期诊断有一定的临床意义.     

降钙素原在婴幼儿尿路感染诊断中的应用

尿路感染(urinary tract infection,UTI)是一种常见的细菌感染性疾病.在发热的婴幼儿中,约7.5%的患儿是UTI [1].由于婴幼儿的临床表现往往不典型,因此鉴别上尿路感染(肾盂肾炎)还是下尿路感染(膀胱炎)较困难.早期、准确的诊断非常重要,有研究显示60%的婴幼儿UTI会进展为永久性的肾瘢痕,进而使高血压的发生率上升[2].     

小儿泌尿道感染临床特征及治疗的进展

Royer在1839年首次描述了泌尿道感染(简称UTI),并记载了小儿UTI的病原学、诊断和治疗。小儿UTI发病率仅次于上呼吸道感染。也是在3岁以下不能解释的发热患儿中主要病因之一。Kunin指出在美国大约有150万女孩在18岁之前至少曾经有过一次菌尿。发生率男孩为0.03%,女孩在0.8～2.0%之间。在11岁前发展为症状性UTI,男孩为1.1%,女孩为3.0%。大多数婴儿和儿童急性感染后无继续反复感染,只有小部分患儿反复感染。Abbout报导新生儿发病率为0.1～     

儿童泌尿系统感染病原学及实验室检查

泌尿系统感染(UTI)为儿童常见病,相对成人而言儿童UTI中复杂型所占比例较高,易反复发作,较难治愈。近年来,随着广谱抗生素的广泛应用,儿童UTI的发病率呈上升趋势,且病原体种类也不断变迁。因此,全面了解儿童UTI的病原学及相关实验室检查,对及早查明病因、指导临床治疗、避免肾功能受损及改善预后极为重要。现就UTI的病原学及其实验室检查现状进行简要概述。     

加强对儿童尿路感染和膀胱输尿管反流的认识

儿童尿路感染是婴儿和儿童中一种常见的细菌性感染,6岁以内儿童泌尿道感染(UTI)累计发病率女孩为6.6%,男孩为1.8%.UTI与膀胱输尿管反流(VUR)的关系复杂,共同存在是导致持续性的肾脏损害和疤痕化的重要因素.UTI诊断明确后最常应用的影像学检查有肾脏和尿路超声检查、排泄性膀胱尿道造影和核素肾静态显像(DMSA),其中DMSA为目前公认的诊断肾瘢痕的金标准.尽管对在不同年龄、性别和临床表现的患儿中如何正确选择相关的影像学检查有较大的争议,但多数推荐对所有2岁以下的儿童进行超声、VCUG和DMSA检查.研究还显示VUR有其一定的遗传基础,在同胞中的发病率显著高于健康儿童.随时间推移发育逐渐成熟,有部分反流可自行痊愈,大都不需要手术治疗.大多数VUR的病例,尤其是5岁以下的儿童建议使用低剂量持续性抗生素预防治疗.反流性肾病长期的并发症是发生终末期慢性肾功能衰竭.     

Urinary tract infections in infants and children: Diagnosis and management

Recent studies have resulted in major changes in the management of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in children. The present statement focuses on the diagnosis and management of infants and children >2 months of age with an acute UTI and no known underlying urinary tract pathology or risk factors for a neurogenic bladder. UTI should be ruled out in preverbal children with unexplained fever and in older children with symptoms suggestive of UTI (dysuria, urinary frequency, hematuria, abdominal pain, back pain or new daytime incontinence). A midstream urine sample should be collected for urinalysis and culture in toilet-trained children; others should have urine collected by catheter or by suprapubic aspirate. UTI is unlikely if the urinalysis is completely normal. A bagged urine sample may be used for urinalysis but should not be used for urine culture. Antibiotic treatment for seven to 10 days is recommended for febrile UTI. Oral antibiotics may be offered as initial treatment when the child is not seriously ill and is likely to receive and tolerate every dose. Children <2 years of age should be investigated after their first febrile UTI with a renal/bladder ultrasound to identify any significant renal abnormalities. A voiding cystourethrogram is not required for children with a first UTI unless the renal/bladder ultrasound reveals findings suggestive of vesicoureteral reflux, selected renal anomalies or obstructive uropathy.     

Urinary Infections in Children

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common infection in infants and children. During infancy, boys are more commonly affected than girls and thereafter, female preponderance is found. Presentation varies among different age groups. Clinical features in neonates and young infants are non-specific, manifest as septicemia where a high index of suspicion is needed. Older children typically present as simple or complicated UTI. Rapid diagnosis, institution of early treatment and further evaluation by imaging modalities are of utmost importance. The prevention of recurrent UTI and detection of congenital anomalies of kidney and urinary tract are major objectives in the management. Use of ultrasound is required to detect underlying congenital abnormalities, whereas voiding cystourethrogram and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scan are useful in the diagnosis of obstructive uropathy and vesicoureteric reflux and renal scar, respectively. The children requiring surgical interventions are to be recognised early to prevent recurrent UTI. The treatment of vesicoureteric reflux by chemoprophylaxis in lower grades and surgical treatment in higher grades are important consideration in prevention of recurrent UTI. This is required to prevent renal parenchymal damage and scarring that can cause hypertension and progressive renal insufficiency in later life.     

Diagnosis and management of urinary tract infections in children

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common bacterial infection that can affect infants and children.It has a number of different ways to manifest itself clinically ranging from a mild cystitis to a presentation with systemic symptoms such as a non-specific fever, vomiting, failure to thrive or irritability or with significant dehydration and electrolyte imbalance which can be seen in infants in the first 3 months of life. It is therefore a ubiquitous differential diagnosis in many children presenting both in primary care and in the hospital setting.In most children urinary infections are isolated acute infections from which they recover quickly. In a small minority of children urinary infections can be associated with underlying significant pathology: either they are associated with congenital renal tract malformations such as renal dysplasia and/or hydronephrosis or if they have recurrent infections this may lead to renal scarring, particularly if the infections are associated with systemic symptoms.     

Urinary tract infections in children

Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common bacterial infection that can affect infants and children. The severity of illness depends on microbial virulence and host susceptibility.It has a number of different ways to manifest itself clinically ranging from a mild cystitis to a presentation with systemic symptoms such as a nonspecific fever, vomiting, failure to thrive or irritability or with significant dehydration and electrolyte imbalance which can be seen in infants in the first 3 months of life. It is therefore a ubiquitous differential diagnosis in many children presenting both in primary care and in the hospital setting.In most children urinary infections are isolated acute infections from which they recover quickly. In a small minority of children urinary infections can be associated with underlying significant pathology: either they are associated with congenital renal tract malformations such as renal dysplasia and/or hydronephrosis or if they have recurrent infections this may lead to renal scarring, particularly if the infections are associated with systemic symptoms.     

Risk factors for recurrent urinary tract infection in preschool children

OBJECTIVE: Children with urinary tract infections (UTI) are at risk of renal scarring which may lead to impaired renal function and hypertension. This study examines the risk factors that predispose to recurrent UTI in children and the role of recurrent UTI in renal scarring. METHODOLOGY: A group of 290 children under 5 years of age with a first symptomatic UTI were studied. Micturating cystourethrogram and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) renal scintigraphy were performed at entry, and DMSA was repeated 1 year later. Two hundred and sixty-one children (90%) were followed up at 1 year. RESULTS: There were 46 confirmed recurrent infections in 34 children, a recurrence rate of 12%. Multiple recurrence occurred in 14/34 (34%) children. Age of less than 6 months on entry independently predicted for recurrent UTI (odds ratio (OR): 2.9)). Compliance with prophylactic antibiotics fell throughout the year of follow up. Vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) was present in 14/34 (34%) of the group with recurrent UTI, 69/256 (27%) without recurrence. Urinary tract infection was significantly associated with bilateral and intrarenal reflux; grade 3-5 reflux independently predicted for recurrent UTI (OR: 3.5). Recurrent UTI was significantly associated with high grade DMSA defects on entry, renal parenchymal defects at 1 year follow up, and new defects at 1 year. CONCLUSION: The independent risk factors for recurrent UTI identified by this study were an age of less than 6 months at the index UTI and grade 3-5 VUR. These findings suggest more selective targeting may minimize problems associated with prophylaxis and improve outcomes for children with urine infection.     

Urinary tract infections: evaluation and treatment

Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the second most common bacterial infection in children after those of the respiratory tract. These infections are important in view of their acute morbidity and the long-term risk of renal scarring. Occurrence of UTI below two years of age, delay in starting treatment and presence of vesicoureteric reflux or obstruction are the chief risk factors associated with renal scarring. The classical features of UTI are absent in young children, who often present with few signs or symptoms other than fever. Since the diagnosis of UTI warrants a thorough evaluation subsequently, empiric treatment based on symptoms or urinalysis alone should be avoided. Therapy with appropriate antibiotics is started only after obtaining a urine culture. The distinction between upper and lower urinary tract infections is difficult and the choice of therapy guided by the patient's age and severity of clinical manifestations. All children with UTI should be investigated to identify those with an underlying urinary tract anomaly.     

Urinary tract infection in childhood--an overview. 2. Therapy

The prevention of pyelonephritic scarring is the main aim of the treatment of urinary tract infections (UTI) in children. Therefore, an early diagnosis and an immediate and effective antibiotic therapy of acute pyelonephritis is necessary, especially in the first years of life. Furthermore, recurrences of UTI should be prevented in children at high risk of developing renal scarring (vesicoureteric reflux, obstruction of the urinary tract, injured kidneys, bladder dysfunction). In the present paper recommendations are given for antibiotic therapy of acute UTI, antibacterial prophylaxis of reinfections and treatment of bladder dysfunctions.     

Risk factors for recurrent urinary tract infection in 4,332 Belgian schoolchildren aged between 10 and 14 years

To analyse the risk factors for recurrent urinary tract infection (UTI) and the possible influence of potty-training, a questionnaire with 41 questions was completed by 4,332 parents of children completing the last 2 years of normal primary school. Statistical analysis was done with the Chi-squared test and Yates correction. Three groups of children emerged: one without any history of UTI (n =3818), a group with one actual or former UTI (n =382) and a group with recurrent UTI (n =132). Mean age was 11.5±0.56 years. A strong correlation between daytime and/or night-time wetting, voiding frequency of more than 10 times a day and nocturia and recurrent UTI was found. No correlation between these factors and a single UTI could be demonstrated. In the 343 bed-wetting children, equal infections for boys and girls were found. Potty-training started significantly earlier in children without UTI. Parents of children with recurrent UTIs insisted more when the first attempt to void was unsuccessful: in the group without UTI, most parents just postponed and had the child try later again. In the group with recurrent UTI, more parents asked the child to strain, made special noises or turned on a tap. Conclusion:daytime with/without night-time wetting, more than 10 voidings a day and nocturia are indicators of recurrent urinary tract infections. If they are simultaneously present, the relative risk for recurrent urinary tract infections is 60%. Consequently, paediatricians should take urinary symptoms very seriously into account, and as incontinence is still a hidden condition, question the child on this topic.Abbreviations MNE monosymptomatic enuresis nocturna - UTI urinary tract infection - VUR vesicoureteral reflux     

Radiological evaluation of the urinary tract in children with urinary infection

Objective: This article in to study the association of structural abnormalities of the urinary tract in children with urinary tract infection (UTI) using ultrasound examination.Methods : 262 children with culture proven urinary tract infection were studied. Antibiotics were given as per sensitivity pattern. All children had an ultrasound of the abdomen done within 3 weeks. A micturating cystourethrogram (MCU) was done in those with abnormalities of the lower urinary tract detected on ultrasound, as well as in those who had recurrence of infection, after a normal ultrasound. IVU and renal isotope scans were done in selected cases.Result : All children were followed up until one year after the study period. Fifty-four patients had an underlying urinary tract anomaly; 42 were picked up by ultrasound and 12 by MCU. 22.9% of males and 15.9% of females had anomaly of the urinary tract. Children less than 2 years had the highest incidence of anomalies.Conclusion : Pelviureteric junction obstruction with hydronephrosis, vesicoureteric reflux and non-refluxing megaureter are the major anomalies picked up. 20% of children with urinary tract infections have an underlying structural abnormality of the urinary tract, three-fourth of which are picked up on ultrasound. An ultrasound abdomen is recommended in all children after the first UTI. In addition, an MCU is also indicated in all boys below 2 years with UTI, since one-third of anomalies will be missed if only ultrasound is done.     

Imaging and treatment strategies for children after first urinary tract infection

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To highlight recent controversies regarding the rationale and effectiveness of imaging and treatment strategies for children who experience a first urinary tract infection. RECENT FINDINGS: The yield of renal ultrasound for children who have had a first urinary tract infection is relatively low, and the most commonly identified abnormalities are of unclear clinical significance. If concerned about renal ultrasound abnormalities, clinicians should not be reassured by a normal late trimester prenatal ultrasound because its negative predictive value is not sufficiently high. Vesicoureteral reflux is neither necessary nor sufficient for developing renal scars. Some pyelonephritis and renal scarring may be related to vesicoureteral reflux that is missed by standard voiding cystourethrogram but detectable during positional instillation of contrast cystography. Dimercaptosuccinic acid scans provide important information about presence of pyelonephritis and renal scars, and have high negative predictive value for ruling out high-grade (III-V) vesicoureteral reflux. Antimicrobial prophylaxis may not be effective for preventing recurrent infections and may result in antimicrobial resistance. Endoscopic therapy (Deflux) has demonstrated moderate success in correcting vesicoureteral reflux, but little is known about its impact on recurrent infection and renal scarring. SUMMARY: Debate continues about optimal imaging strategies after first urinary tract infection. More research is needed on the effectiveness of interventions designed to prevent recurrent infections and renal scarring.