跖跗关节损伤治疗方法的疗效分析

目的探讨不同方式治疗跖跗关节损伤的临床疗效。方法对35例单足跖跗关节损伤患者根据骨折分型应用石膏固定2例,闭合复位经皮内固定12例,开放复位内固定20例,二期关节融合术1例。结果 35例均获随访,时间3～9(5±2)个月。克氏针松动8例,螺钉断钉2例,创伤后关节炎8例。临床评估依据美国矫形足踝协会(AOFAS)中足评分标准:优12例,良17例,可5例,差1例。结论解剖复位、牢靠固定是治疗跖跗关节损伤的基本原则。中间柱复位并沿Lisfranc韧带方向固定内侧楔骨和第2跖骨基底部是重建跖跗关节复合体稳定性的关键,依据跖跗关节的"三柱"原理选择固定方式,可获得满意疗效。     

跖跗关节复合体损伤的手术治疗

目的 评价跖跗关节复合体损伤的手术治疗效果.方法 2003年1月至2008年12月,共收治167例闭合性跖跗关节损伤患者,其中跖跗关节复合体损伤35例.通过X线及CT检查明确诊断,闭合或切开复位螺钉或钢板内固定,术后定期放射学检查随访,以美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)中足评分系统进行功能评估.结果 本组有135例获得12～78个月随访,平均随访时间48个月.其中跖跗关节复合体损伤26例,术后AOFAS评分48～75分,平均67分;其中16例继发创伤性关节炎,12例因疼痛明显、行走受限二期行关节融合术;单纯跖跗关节损伤109例,术后AOFAS评分70～95分,平均82分,继发创伤性关节炎的17例中5例二期行关节融合术.单纯跖跗关节损伤闭合复位经皮螺钉内固定者术后AOFAS中足评分82～95分,平均87分,与跖跗关节复合体损伤者比较差异具有统计学意义(t=2.651,P<0.05).结论 跖跗关节复合体损伤的预后比单纯跖跗关节损伤的差,而准确诊断、实现复合体各个部分的解剖复位和可靠固定是取得良好治疗效果的关键.     

Herbert螺钉治疗跖跗关节损伤的疗效

目的探讨Herbert螺钉内固定治疗跖跗关节损伤的疗效。方法对24例跖跗关节闭合损伤患者采用切开复位内固定治疗。根据跖跗关节三柱解剖,外侧柱采用克氏针弹性固定,内侧柱及中间柱采用Herbert螺钉坚强固定。结果患者均获得随访,时间12～19个月。所有患者无感染及内固定断裂发生。末次随访时按照AOFAS中部足功能评分标准评价疗效:优15例,良6例,可2例,差1例,优良率为21/24。结论 Herbert螺钉治疗跖跗关节损伤,能达到坚强固定、早期功能锻炼的目的,疗效满意。     

切开复位内固定治疗隐匿性跖跗关节损伤

目的探讨切开复位内固定治疗隐匿性跖跗关节损伤的临床疗效。方法 2002年7月-2009年7月,收治47例隐匿性跖跗关节损伤患者。男31例,女16例;年龄19～66岁,平均35.6岁。交通事故伤27例,高处坠落伤11例,运动伤6例,压砸伤3例。左足18例,右足29例。单纯内侧柱损伤6例,内侧柱伴中间柱损伤24例,中间柱伴外侧柱损伤13例,三柱损伤4例。患者均存在跖骨基底部骨折。受伤至手术时间为4～21 d,平均8.6 d。手术采用1～2个足背侧纵形切口,复位后用小钢板、螺钉、骑缝钉、克氏针固定内侧柱及中间柱,外侧柱均用克氏针固定。结果 1例术后切口感染,经封闭式负压引流2周后采用腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣移位修复创面;其余患者切口均Ⅰ期愈合。术后32例获随访,随访时间12～75个月,平均28.3个月。骨折于术后9～15周愈合,平均12.3周。末次随访时,15例出现中足骨关节炎表现,但无需行关节融合术。采用美国矫形足踝协会(AOFAS)的中足评分标准评价疗效,获优9例,良16例,一般4例,差3例,优良率为78.1%。随访期间均未出现跖跗关节再脱位。结论对跖骨基底部骨折应给予足够重视,术中探查有助于发现隐匿性跖跗关节损伤,应根据不同损伤类型及伴发损伤,采用合理的固定方式,尽量做到解剖复位、可靠固定,重建中足内在稳定是获得满意疗效的关键。     

不同方法治疗跖跗关节损伤疗效分析

目的探讨不同方法治疗跖跗关节损伤的临床疗效。方法分别采用石膏固定、闭合复位经皮内固定、开放复位内固定和二期关节融合术治疗35例跖附关节损伤患者。结果患者均获随访,时间12～36(22±1.5)周,骨折愈合时间16～28(18±2)周。术后12周33例患者能穿平常鞋子在各种地面上行走,步态基本正常。按AOFAS评分:优11例,良18例,可5例,差1例。结论解剖复位、牢靠固定是治疗跖跗关节损伤的基本原则。重建跖跗关节复合体是稳定的关键,并且需要重视对跖跗关节的整体化治疗。     

切开复位内固定治疗跖跗关节损伤伴跖骨骨折

目的:探讨跖跗关节损伤伴跖骨骨折的治疗方法和注意点.方法:2006年1月至2008年6月收治跖跗关节损伤伴跖骨骨折19例,男13例,女6例;年龄21～56岁,平均38.1岁.跖跗关节损伤分型:单纯内侧柱损伤2例,内侧柱伴中间柱损伤5例,外侧柱伴中间柱损伤3例,三柱损伤9例.跖骨骨折:跖骨干骨折8例,颈部骨折7例,跖骨基底部骨折19例.均采用切开复位克氏针或螺钉内固定.结果:所有切口均I期愈合,未见皮肤坏死等情况.骨折平均愈合时间为11.2周.所有患者均得到随访,时间6～17个月,平均12.8个月.采用美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)中前足评分标准进行临床评估,患者平均AOFAS评分为(84.500±8.553)分,其中优4例,良9例,一般3例,差3例.患者平均术后6.4个月恢复日常生活.3例患者存在轻度骨关节炎表现.结论:无论采用何种固定方式,尽量达到解剖复位重建足弓,恢复维持足部内外侧纵弓和横弓形态是治疗关键.从生物力学角度分析重建足弓,保证足受力点支架完整性,避免了因足底受力不均而引起的疼痛和破行.跖跗关节和跖骨的解剖复位对足部功能的恢复同样重要.     

跖跗关节复合体损伤的诊治探讨

目的：探讨跖跗关节复合体（TJC）损伤的诊治方法。方法：2007年1月至2009年12月采用切开复位内固定治疗16例跖跗关节复合体损伤,男12例,女4例;年龄21～45岁,平均34.1岁,均为闭合性损伤。左侧7例,右侧9例,均为直接暴力所伤,其中交通伤4例,高处坠落伤5例,挤压伤7例。楔骨间脱位11例,舟楔关节脱位3例,骰骨骨折2例。跖跗关节损伤均为三柱损伤。根据手术探查和稳定性破坏情况,通常跗骨间关节,内侧、中间柱跖跗关节用螺钉固定,外侧柱用克氏针固定,对跖骨基底部粉碎性骨折和骰骨压缩性骨折等用跨关节微型钢板固定以达到解剖复位、有效固定。采用美国足踝外科协会（AOFAS）中足评分标准从疼痛、功能、对线方面进行临床评估。结果：所有患者均获得随访,时间6～18个月,平均12.6个月。按AOFAS评分：疼痛为（29.3±5.9）分,功能为（32.4±5.6）分,对线为（12.9±2.6）分,总分为（74.6±10.4）分。所有切口均Ⅰ期愈合,未见皮肤坏死,感染,钢板螺钉松动、断裂等并发症。3例患者因后期出现骨性关节炎,疼痛明显,行走困难,Ⅱ期行关节融合术。4例患者影像学表现为骨性关节炎,但临床症状（疼痛）较轻,继续观察随访。结论：解剖复位有效稳定内固定是治疗跖跗关节复合体损伤的关键要素,Ⅰ期切开复位内固定有利于Ⅱ期融合手术。     

一期有限植骨融合术治疗Lisfranc损伤

目的探讨一期植骨融合术治疗Chiodo三柱损伤分类中合并中间柱第2和（或）第3跖跗关节Lisfranc损伤的临床疗效。方法合并中间柱第2和（或）第3跖跗关节面损伤的Lisfranc损伤9例,中间柱第2和（或）第3跖跗关节采用切开复位植骨融合微型钢板内固定,内侧柱采用切开复位空心钉内固定,外侧柱采用闭合复位克氏针内固定。结果 9例均获随访10-36（22.5±2.5）个月,骨折愈合时间10-18（14.0±4.0）周。术后疗效按AOFAS评分标准评定：优5例,良3例,可1例。结论一期有限植骨融合中间柱治疗Lisfranc损伤具有融合关节少、损伤小、疗效可靠等优点。     

切开复位内固定治疗多发跖骨基底部不稳定骨折合并跖跗关节损伤

[目的]探讨切开复位内固定治疗多发跖骨基底部不稳定骨折合并跖跗关节损伤的方法及临床疗效.[方法]2003年1月～2011年7月,收治35例多发跖骨基底部不稳定骨折合并跖跗关节损伤患者.男22例,女13例;年龄20 ～58岁,平均37.4岁.均采用切开复位内固定的方法治疗.共89处跖骨基底部骨折,其中第2、3跖骨骨折9例,第3、4跖骨骨折7例,第2、3、4跖骨骨折19例.跖跗关节损伤分型:单纯中间柱损伤2例,内侧柱伴中间柱损伤7例,外侧柱伴中间柱损伤10例,三柱损伤16例.针对第2、3跖骨基底部骨折应用微型钢板跨关节固定.[结果]所有患者均获随访,随访时间12 ～30个月,平均22.5个月.术后未发生切口感染、皮肤坏死、内固定断裂等并发症.骨折临床愈合时间为8～17周,平均13.9周.按照美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)中足评分标准,优11例,良18例,一般4例,差2例,优良率82.9％.[结论]跖跗关节和跖骨基底部的解剖复位和可靠固定对足部功能的恢复同等重要,能减少中足骨性关节炎的发生率并取得良好疗效.固定方式的选择应根据损伤类型制定.     

可控加压骑缝钉联合自攻空心加压螺纹钉治疗跖跗关节损伤

目的 初步探讨可控加压骑缝钉联合钛合金自攻空心加压螺纹钉治疗跖跗关节损伤的临床疗效. 方法回顾性研究2006年3月至2007年12月应用可控加压骑缝钉联合钛合金自攻空心加压螺纹钉治疗跖跗关节损伤14例,其中单纯关节脱位4例,关节脱位伴骨折10例.按Myerson分类:A型2例,B型8例(B1型1例,B2型7例),C型4例;单纯内侧柱损伤2例,单纯中间柱损伤3例,内侧柱伴中间柱损伤2例,中间柱伴外侧柱损伤5例,三柱均损伤2例,2例患者同时伴有骰骨骨折.结果 所有切口均一期愈合,所有患者4周拆除石膏开始功能锻炼,术后12～16周拆除内固定后开始部分负重行走,拆除内固定物后22周开始完全负重行走.所有患者术后获得平均8.7个月(4～14个月)随访,根据美国足踝外科协会(AOFAS)评分平均为83.7分(75～91分). 结论可控加压骑缝钉联合自攻空心加压螺纹钉能灵活有效治疗跖跗关节复合体损伤,短期的临床随访获得令人满意的效果.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.