Nitrous oxide inhibits glutamatergic transmission in spinal dorsal horn neurons

The effects of nitrous oxide (N2O) are thought to be mediated by several pharmacological pathways at different levels of the central nervous system. Here, we focus on excitatory glutamatergic transmission in the superficial dorsal horn of the spinal cord with respect to its importance for the nociceptive processing. The effects of 50% N2O on electrically evoked and spontaneous excitatory glutamatergic transmission and on the response to exogenous administration of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptor agonists were examined in lamina II neurons of adult rat spinal cord slices using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Peak amplitudes of Adelta- and C-fiber evoked monosynaptic NMDA- and AMPA-receptor-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) were decreased in the presence of N2O. N2O reduced the peak amplitude and integrated area of exogenous NMDA- and AMPA-induced currents. Moreover N2O changed the distribution of miniature EPSC amplitude, but not frequency distribution in most neurons. N2O inhibits glutamatergic transmission in the superficial dorsal horn by modulating the NMDA- and AMPA-receptors. Our findings raise the possibility that the antinociceptive effect of N2O may be directly mediated at the level of the spinal cord.     

Interferon-gamma induces characteristics of central sensitization in spinal dorsal horn neurons in vitro

Hyperexcitability of spinal dorsal horn neurons, also known as 'central sensitization', is a component of pain associated with pathological conditions in the nervous system. The aim of the present study was to analyze if the pro-inflammatory cytokine, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), which can be released for extended periods of time in the nervous system during inflammatory and infectious events, can alter synaptic activity in dorsal horn neurons and thereby contribute to such hyperexcitability. Treatment of cultured dorsal horn neurons with IFN-gamma for 2 weeks resulted in a significantly reduced clustering of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole (AMPA) receptor subunit 1 (GluR1) that was dependent on nitric oxide. The neurons displayed an increased frequency and amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) upon IFN-gamma treatment. Treated dorsal horn neurons also exhibited increased responsiveness to stimulation of dorsal root ganglia (DRG) axons in a two-compartment model. Furthermore, disinhibition by the GABA(A) receptor antagonist picrotoxin (PTX) significantly increased EPSC frequency and induced bursting in untreated cultures but did not significantly increase the frequency in treated neurons, which displayed bursting even without PTX. GABA(A) agonists reduced activity more strongly in treated cultures and immunochemical staining for GABA(A) receptors showed no difference from controls. Since GluR1-containing AMPA receptors (AMPARs) occur predominantly on inhibitory neurons in the dorsal horn, we suggest that the IFN-gamma-mediated increase in spontaneous activity and responsiveness to DRG axon stimulation, decrease in sensitivity to PTX and tendency for EPSC bursting result from a reduced expression of GluR1 on these neurons and not from a reduction in active GABA(A) receptors in the network. IFN-gamma thereby likely causes disinhibition of synaptic activity and primary afferent input in the dorsal horn, which consequently results in central sensitization.     

氯胺酮对甲醛致痛诱导大鼠脊髓背角神经元兴奋性的抑制

背景:氯胺酮是否可通过影响脊髓水平的伤害性信息的传递而发挥抗伤害作用尚不清楚;一氧化氮在脊髓水平主要参与痛觉过敏的形成和发展,可诱导Fos表达,但其是否参与了氯胺酮对痛信号的转导或调控的机制不明。目的:观察大鼠脊髓对甲醛痛刺激的反应及氯胺酮的影响。设计:均衡随机的动物实验。单位:徐州医学院附属医院麻醉科和江苏省麻醉学重点实验室。材料:实验于2000-01/03在徐州医学院江苏省麻醉学重点实验室进行。取SD大鼠30只,用均衡随机方法分为6组熏甲醛组6只,甲醛 氯胺酮组6只,氯胺酮 甲醛组6只,氯胺酮组6只,甲醛 生理盐水组3只,生理盐水组3只,各组雌雄比例相同。方法:①甲醛组:体积分数为0.05的甲醛200μL一侧前爪掌心皮下注射,刺激1h。②甲醛 氯胺酮组:甲醛痛刺激10min后腹腔注射100mg/kg氯胺酮1h。③氯胺酮 甲醛组:腹腔注射氯胺酮10min后再行甲醛痛刺激1h。④氯胺酮组:腹腔注射同等剂量氯胺酮1h。⑤甲醛 生理盐水组:甲醛痛刺激10min后腹腔注射等容(10mL/kg)的生理盐水1h。⑥生理盐水组:腹腔注射等容生理盐水1h。主要观察指标:①各组大鼠行为学表现。②取脊髓切片,用c-fos基因免疫组化法和NADPH-d组化技术染色,观察大鼠脊髓背角4层(Ⅰ～Ⅱ层,Ⅲ～Ⅳ层,Ⅴ～Ⅵ层,Ⅶ～Ⅹ层)切片Fos样免疫阳性神经元(FLI)和FLI/NOS双标记神经元的数目变化。结果:30只大鼠全部进入结果分析。①行为学变化:甲醛组及甲醛 生理盐水组大鼠注射甲醛后,出现痛反应;注射氯胺酮的大鼠,注射后数分钟内翻正反射消失,无明显的痛行为表现,而呈持续睡眠状态,至灌注时翻正反射仍未恢复。②FLI神经元表达:甲醛组及甲醛 生理盐水组大鼠注射侧脊髓背角出现大量FLI阳性神经元,主要分布在脊髓背角Ⅰ～Ⅱ层;氯胺酮 甲醛组、甲醛 氯胺酮组大鼠脊髓FLI细胞的分布与甲醛组及甲醛 生理盐水组基本相似,但FLI阳性细胞数量显著减少(P<0.01);氯胺酮组和生理盐水组大鼠脊髓未见或偶见FLI阳性细胞。③FLI/NOS双标记神经元表达:氯胺酮 甲醛组、甲醛 氯胺酮组脊髓背角Ⅰ～Ⅱ层双标记神经元数目显著少于甲醛组及甲醛 生理盐水组眼(1±1),(1±1),(7±3),(8±3)个/切片,P<0.01演,氯胺酮组和生理盐水组无表达。结论:同侧相应脊髓节段的某些神经元参与了化学性致痛信息的传导和调控,氯胺酮通过抑制这些神经元的活动而产生抗伤害作用;此作用与抑制脊髓内一氧化氮合酶阳性神经元的活性有关。     

氯胺酮对甲醛致痛诱导大鼠脊髓背角神经元兴奋性的抑制

背景：氯胺酮是否可通过影响脊髓水平的伤害性信息的传递而发挥抗伤害作用尚不清楚；一氧化氮在脊髓水平主要参与痛觉过敏的形成和发展，可诱导Fos表达，但其是否参与了氯胺酮对痛信号的转导或调控的机制不明。 目的：观察大鼠脊髓对甲醛痛刺激的反应及氯胺酮的影响。 设计：均衡随机的动物实验。 单位：徐州医学院附属医院麻醉科和江苏省麻醉学重点实验室。 材料：实验于2000-01／03在徐州医学院江苏省麻醉学重点实验室进行。取SD大鼠30只，用均衡随机方法分为6组。甲醛组6只，甲醛＋氯胺酮组6只，氯胺酮＋甲醛组6只，氯胺酮组6只。甲醛＋生理盐水组3只，生理盐水组3只，各组雌雄比例相同。 方法：④甲醛组：体积分数为0．05的甲醛200μL一侧前爪掌心皮下注射，刺激1h。②甲醛＋氯胺酮组：甲醛痛刺激10min后腹腔注射100mg／kg氯胺酮1h。③氯胺酮＋甲醛组：腹腔注射氯胺酮10min，后再行甲醛痛刺激1h。④氯胺酮组：腹腔注射同等剂量氯胺酮1h。⑤甲醛＋生理盐水组：甲醛痛刺激10min后腹腔注射等容（10mL／kg）的生理盐水1h。⑥生理盐水组：腹腔注射等容生理盐水1h。 主要观察指标：①各组大鼠行为学表现。②取脊髓切片，用c-fos基因免疫组化法和NADPH-d组化技术染色，观察大鼠脊髓背角4层（Ⅰ～Ⅱ层，Ⅲ～Ⅳ层，Ⅴ～Ⅵ层，Ⅶ～Ⅹ层）切片Fos样免疫阳性神经元（FLI）和FLI／NOS双标记神经元的数目变化。 结果：30只大鼠全部进入结果分析。①行为学变化：甲醛组及甲醛＋生理盐水组大鼠注射甲醛后，出现痛反应；注射氯胺酮的大鼠，注射后数分钟内翻正反射消失，无明显的痛行为表现，而呈持续睡眠状态。至灌注时翻正反射仍未恢复。②FLI神经元表达：甲醛组及甲醛＋生理盐水组大鼠注射侧脊髓背角出现大量FLI阳性神经元，主要分布在脊髓背角Ⅰ～Ⅱ层；氯胺酮＋甲醛组、甲醛＋氯胺酮组大鼠脊髓FLI细胞的分布与甲醛组及甲醛＋生理盐水组基本相似，但FLI阳性细胞数量显著减少（P〈0．01）；氯胺酮组和生理盐水组大鼠脊髓未见或偶见FLI阳性细胞。③FLI／NOS双标记神经元表达：氯胺酮＋甲醛组、甲醛＋氯胺酮组脊髓背角Ⅰ～Ⅱ层双标记神经元数目显著少于甲醛组及甲醛＋生理盐水组[（1&;#177;1），（1&;#177;1），（7&;#177;3），（8&;#177;3）个／切片，P〈0．01]，氯胺酮组和生理盐水组无表达。 结论：同侧相应脊髓节段的某些神经元参与了化学性致痛信息的传导和调控，氯胺酮通过抑制这些神经元的活动而产生抗伤害作用；此作用与抑制脊髓内一氧化氮合酶阳性神经元的活性有关。     

The pattern of Fos expression in the spinal dorsal horn following acute noxious mechanical stimulation of bone

Little is known of the spinal mechanisms that mediate bone nociception. The aim of this study was to determine the pattern of neuronal activation in the spinal dorsal horn following acute noxious mechanical stimulation of bone. This was achieved by examining Fos expression in the spinal dorsal horn following acute, noxious mechanical stimulation of the rat tibia. Noxious mechanical stimuli were applied by bone drilling and raising tibial intra-osseous pressure. Control experiments consisted of surgery to expose the tibia. There was a significant increase in the number of Fos-like immunoreactive (Fos-LI) nuclei in the superficial, ipsilateral dorsal horn of animals in the bone drilling and pressure groups relative to animals of the control group at spinal cord segments L3 and L4 (P < 0.05). The number of Fos-LI nuclei in the deep dorsal horn was always lower than the number in the superficial dorsal horn (significant at L3 but not L4; P < 0.05). Whilst there appeared to be a small increase in the number of Fos-LI nuclei in the ipsilateral deep dorsal horn of bone drilling and pressure groups relative to the ipsilateral deep dorsal horn control group at both L3 and L4 segments, no significant effect was observed (P > 0.05). The present study implicates the superficial dorsal horn of the spinal cord as a region of interest in studies of acute bone pain, and highlights the notion that spinal mechanisms that mediate bone nociception may be different to those that mediate nociception of cutaneous and visceral origin.     

Differential effects of spinal CNQX on two populations of dorsal horn neurons responding to colorectal distension in the rat

The present study examined the effect of a spinally administered excitatory amino acid antagonist, 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX; 1, 2.5, 5 microg) on responses of spinal dorsal horn neurons to graded intensities (20, 40, 60, 80 mmHg) of colorectal distention (CRD). Extracellular single unit recordings were made from 28 dorsal horn neurons in the L6-S2 spinal cord. Neurons excited by CRD were subclassified as short latency abrupt (SLA) neurons and short latency sustained (SLS) neurons. The response to graded intensities of CRD was dose-dependently attenuated in 9/17 SLA neurons (53%). The response to CRD was also dose-dependently attenuated in 8/11 SLS neurons (73%). The response to CRD in the remaining eight SLA neurons and three SLS neurons was not attenuated by CNQX. Comparing only neurons that were significantly attenuated by the CNQX, it was found that the magnitude of attenuation of the response to noxious CRD (80 mmHg) produced by 5 microg CNQX was significantly greater in SLA (63 +/-6%) vs. SLS (40 +/- 6%) neurons. While CNQX produced a significant attenuation of the response to innocuous CRD (20 mmHg), there was no difference between the SLA and SLS neurons. The effects of CNQX on the response to somatic stimulation (touch, pinch) of the cutaneous receptive field of these 28 neurons were qualitatively examined in all neurons and quantitatively examined in nine neurons (five SLA and four SLS neurons). CNQX generally decreased the response to pinch or touch, even if CNQX did not attenuate the response to CRD. These results suggest that subpopulations of SLA and SLS neurons are differentially modulated by non-NMDA ionotropic excitatory amino acid receptors and that these neuronal subtypes contribute differently to visceral sensory processing. Furthermore, the lack of correlation between the effects of CNQX on visceral and somatic sensory processing in the same neuron underscores potential differences in processing of visceral and somatic pain.     

Responses of spinal cord dorsal horn neurones to non-noxious and noxious cutaneous temperature changes in the spinal rat.

(1) Lumbar dorsal horn units characterized by their mechanical cutaneous sensitivities were tested for their responses to temperature changes of the skin in the decerebrate spinal rats. (a) Class 1 units (i.e. driven by non-noxious mechanical stimuli) were rarely thermally sensitive. (b) Nearly all class 2 units (i.e. driven by both non-noxious and noxious mechanical stimuli) and 4 of the 5 class 3 units (i.e. driven by noxious mechanical stimuli) were sensitive to temperature changes. (2) According to their thermal response threshold and their response range, these units were divided into 3 groups. (a) Warming units whose response threshold and maximum response were below 42.5 degrees C. Such units were rarely encountered. (b) Warming/noxious heat units whose response threshold was below 42.5 degrees C but with a maximum response above this temperature. They represented approximatively one-third of the radiant heat-sensitive units. (c) Noxious heat units whose response threshold was above 42.5 degrees C and maximum discharge several degrees above it. Approximately 50% of units activated by radiant heat belonged to this group. (3) Responses to radiant heat stimulation were frequently affected by a first noxious heat application. It consisted: --in a threshold decrease and/or an increase of their cellular discharge for a same temperature range. Only observed for warming/noxious heat units and noxious heat units, this sensitization phenomenon predminantly affected noxious heat units. --in a decrease of cellular discharge for a same temperature range. This desensitization phenomenon was observed for the 3 groups of units driven by radiant heat but mainly for warming units. (4) Supramaximal transcutaneous electrical stimulation revealed that nearly all the thermally sensitive units received A delta and/or C inputs. These units were largely distributed throughout the dorsal horn (laminae I, IV and V). Ten of the 12 lamina I units responded to noxious thermal stimuli. (5) These data indicate that an increase in skin temperature is coded at the level of the rat spinal cord dorsal horn by both an increase in discharge of low threshold temperature sensitive units and a progressive recruitment of high threshold units.     

Systemic morphine inhibits dorsal horn projection neurons through spinal cholinergic system independent of descending pathways

Cholinergic circuitry and muscarinic receptors within the spinal cord have been proposed to contribute to the analgesic effects of systemic morphine. In this study, we determined whether the descending pathways are involved in the inhibitory effect of systemic morphine on dorsal horn projection neurons mediated by activation of the spinal cholinergic system. Single-unit activity of dorsal horn projection neurons was recorded in anesthetized rats. The neuronal responses to mechanical stimuli applied to the receptive field were determined before and after intravenous injection of morphine. The inhibitory effect of intravenous morphine on dorsal horn neurons was also tested before and after topical spinal application of the muscarinic antagonist atropine in both intact and spinally transected rats. Intravenous injection of 2.5 mg/kg morphine significantly inhibited the evoked response of dorsal horn neurons in both intact and spinally transected rats. Spinal topical application of the mu opioid antagonist H-d-Phe-Cys-Tyr-d-Trp-Arg-Thr-Pen-Thr-NH(2) (CTAP) completely blocked the effect of morphine on dorsal horn neurons. In addition, spinal application of 10 microM atropine significantly attenuated the effect of systemic morphine. In rats subjected to cervical spinal transection, atropine produced a similar attenuation of the inhibitory effect of systemic morphine on dorsal horn neurons. Data from this electrophysiological study suggest that systemic morphine inhibits ascending dorsal horn neurons through stimulation of spinal mu opioid receptors. Furthermore, activation of the local spinal cholinergic circuitry and muscarinic receptors is involved in the inhibitory effect of systemic morphine on dorsal horn projection neurons independent of descending pathways.     

Spinal administration of MK-801 and NBQX demonstrates NMDA-independent dorsal horn sensitization in incisional pain

Surgery commonly causes pain and neural plasticity that are unique compared to other persistent pain problems. To more precisely study central sensitization and plasticity, we examined the role of ionotropic EAA receptors in dorsal horn neuron sensitization early after incision. Sensitization, in the form of increased background activity, increased mechanosensitivity or pinch receptive field expansion, was induced by plantar incision 1 h later in 30 neurons. (+)-5-Methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo(a,d)cyclohepten-5,10-imine (MK-801) or 1 mM 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-nitro-2,3-dioxo[f]quinoxaline-7-sulfonamide (NBQX) was administered through a microdialysis fiber to block NMDA and nonNMDA EAA receptors, respectively. Dorsal horn neuron sensitization was reexamined 1 h later. Spinal administration of NBQX blocked AMPA-induced excitation but did not affect excitation by NMDA. NBQX decreased background activity in the neurons that developed sustained increased activity after incision. The median decrease caused by NBQX was from 2.3 to 0.0 imp/s. Spinal administration of 5 mM MK-801 blocked NMDA-induced excitation but did not affect excitation by AMPA. The median change (from 2.6 to 1.1 imp/s) in background activity increased by incision was not significantly affected by MK-801. The responses to mechanical stimuli were enhanced after incision in wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons. NBQX eliminated these responses but MK-801 had no effect. The pinch receptive field (RF) expansion into uninjured areas of the paw and hindquarters occurred after incision. Only 1 of 13 neurons exhibited RF expansion after spinal NBQX administration; 9 of 12 neurons had RF expansion remaining after MK-801. Thus, nonNMDA receptors are critical and NMDA-independent factors influence the increased responsiveness of dorsal horn neurons that occur early after incision.     

Encoding of noxious stimulus intensity by putative pain modulating neurons in the rostral ventromedial medulla and by simultaneously recorded nociceptive neurons in the spinal dorsal horn of rats

Neurons in the nucleus raphe magnus and adjacent structures of the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) are involved in the control of nociceptive transmission. In the RVM the so-called on-cells are excited, and the so-called off-cells are inhibited, by noxious stimuli applied almost anywhere on the body surface, thus showing that they receive information from spinal and trigeminal nociceptive neurons. In deeply anesthetized rats, recordings were made from RVM neurons that resembled on- and off-cells (herein called putative on- and off-cells) in order to investigate (1) how they encode the intensity of thermal noxious stimuli (46--56 degrees C) applied to a hindpaw, and (2) how their encoding properties relate to those of simultaneously recorded spinal neurons. In 49 of 98 cases, a graded increase in the stimulus temperature caused a monotonic decrease in the response latency of putative on-cells, putative off-cells and spinal neurons, while the response discharge rate monotonically increased for putative on-cells and spinal neurons and decreased for putative off-cells. In the majority of simultaneous recordings of RVM and spinal neurons, the latency and discharge rate of the putative on- or off-cell were highly correlated with the latency and discharge rate of the spinal neuron, and the stimulus/response slopes were similar. These results show that putative on- and off-cells can encode the stimulus intensity in terms of response latency and discharge rate, and suggest that such encoding closely reflects spinal neuronal encoding. This may be relevant for the transmission and modulation of pain information by RVM neurons.     

Relationship between mechano-receptive fields of dorsal horn convergent neurons and the response to noxious immersion of the ipsilateral hindpaw in rats

This study examines the relationship between mechano-receptive fields (inhibitory and excitatory, located on the ipsilateral hindpaw) of convergent dorsal horn neurons, and the responses of the neurons to noxious immersion of an entire paw in noxious hot water. In pentobarbital anesthetized rats with intact spinal cords and in unanesthetized decerebrate-spinalized rats, rat hindpaws were immersed in 50°C water for 10 s after the mechano-receptive fields had been delineated using 5-s noxious pinches. Convergent neurons were either excited or inhibited by noxious immersion of the hindpaw. In both groups, a significant association (χ², P<0.01) was found between the make-up of the mechano-receptive field and the response of the neuron to immersion. Immersion-inhibited neurons (intact=27, spinalized=13), always had both an excitatory and an inhibitory mechano-receptive field on the same hindpaw. Additionally, when the hindpaw was removed from the noxious water, these immersion-inhibited cells displayed a strong afterdischarge which was immediately inhibited once the paw was reimmersed. Pinch-induced and immersion-induced inhibition were found in both spinalized and intact rats suggesting spinal mechanisms were sufficient to mediate this effect. The majority of immersion-excited cells showed only an excitatory mechano-receptive field on the hindpaw (intact rats=18/23 or 78.3%, spinalized rats=24/36 or 66.7%). However, other immersion-excited cells had both an inhibitory and an excitatory mechano-receptive field on the hindpaw (intact rats=5/23 or 21.7%, spinalized rats=12/36 or 33.3%). The response of a convergent neuron, which has its excitatory receptive field located on a paw, to noxious immersion of the entire paw can be predicted by the make-up of the mechano-receptive fields. Additionally, since noxious paw immersion affects ipsilateral convergent neurons in two opposite manners, it suggests that other effects, such as heterotopic actions, might also not be uniform.     

Characteristics of spinal dorsal horn neurons after partial chronic deafferentation by dorsal root transection

Unilateral transections of 1-3 lumbar dorsal roots were performed in 13 adult cats to investigate the effect of partial deafferentation on dorsal horn neurons. Eleven to 45 days after deafferentation various parameters of spontaneous and evoked activity of 169 neurons were measured and compared to the data of 168 neurons from previous experiments recorded under identical experimental conditions except that these animals had not been deafferented. Eighty-six of the units encountered were located in the segment of transected dorsal root(s) and 82 in the caudally adjacent segment. No significant differences could be observed in the functional properties of these two samples of units. Most parameters measured indicate that either no change at all in responsiveness or signs of decreased excitability occurred in the partially deafferented neurons compared to units recorded in control animals. Discharges evoked by noxious skin heating indicate a linear relationship between discharge frequency and skin temperature. This kind of encoding curve could also be measured during a reversible cold block of the spinal cord at segment L1. The mean encoding curves before and during spinal blockade were not different in deafferented compared to corresponding curves measured in control animals. The only finding that could be interpreted as an indication for increased excitability of partially deafferented neurons was that the mean frequency of spontaneous discharges of a subsample of heat-sensitive neurons was higher in deafferented compared to control animals. Possible mechanisms are discussed.     

Inhibition of nociceptive responses of lumbar dorsal horn neurones by remote noxious afferent stimulation in the cat

In cats anaesthetized with nitrous oxide and sodium pentobarbital, multireceptive lumbar dorsal horn neurones excited by controlled noxious radiant heating of glabrous hind paw skin were recorded by extracellular microelectrodes. These noxious heat responses were inhibited by concomitant noxious stimulation of the ipsilateral forepaw or pinna, or repetitive electrical stimulation of the ipsilateral forelimb deep radial nerve. Similar extents of inhibition were produced by noxious peripheral stimulation and by deep radial nerve stimulation in repetitive trains at intensities sufficient to excite small myelinated fibres or unmyelinated fibres. A greater inhibitory effect was produced by continuous repetitive high-intensity stimulation of the deep radial nerve. With a constant frequency (5 Hz) of continuous deep radial nerve stimulation, graded increases in stimulation intensity revealed the threshold for inhibition in the small myelinated fibre range, and an additional increment of the inhibitory effect when unmyelinated fibres were also activated. When suprathreshold for unmyelinated fibres, the efficacy of continuous deep radial nerve stimulation increased with graded increases in stimulation frequency, with a threshold frequency for inhibition between 0.5 and 1 Hz and maximal effect at 5 Hz. Two nociceptive-specific neurones studied were also inhibited by deep radial nerve stimulation. The results indicate that 'diffuse noxious inhibitory controls' (DNIC) occur in the cat and can be activated by remote electrical or natural noxious stimulation.     

Long-term changes in discharge behaviour of cat dorsal horn neurones following noxious stimulation of deep tissues

Certain pathological types of afferent input are supposed to lead to long-term changes in the responsiveness of dorsal horn neurones. This mechanism might be of importance for the development of neurological disturbances such as chronic pain. The present study was undertaken in order to find out whether dorsal horn neurones--particularly those processing input from deep tissues--exhibit long-lasting changes in response behaviour after a short-lasting noxious stimulation of deep tissue. In anaesthetized cats, the impulse activity of single dorsal horn cells was recorded extracellularly with glass microelectrodes. In a small number of cells that had multiple receptive fields (RFs), the algesic agent bradykinin was injected into a muscle RF and the properties of all RFs retested at regular time intervals. Following noxious chemical stimulation of one RF, the injected and the other RFs of the same neurone often showed changes which consisted of an increase in size, a lowering of mechanical threshold and appearance of new RFs. In an attempt to assess the influence of a single noxious stimulus on the entire population of dorsal horn cells, the properties of a greater sample of neurones were compared before and after injection of bradykinin into the deep tissues of the hind limb. Every cell encountered was classified as being driven by (1) cutaneous receptors only, (2) deep receptors only, (3) both input sources, or (4) electrical stimulation only (cell without receptive field). Following injection of bradykinin, the proportion of cells with both deep and cutaneous input and of those having background activity rose, and the percentage of cells without a receptive field decreased.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Spinal cord stimulation attenuates dorsal horn neuronal hyperexcitability in a rat model of mononeuropathy

The mechanisms underlying the relief of neuropathic pain of peripheral origin by spinal cord stimulation (SCS) are poorly understood. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of SCS on evoked and spontaneous discharges in dorsal horn neurons in intact and in nerve-injured rats subjected to partial sciatic nerve ligation according to Seltzer et al. (1990). Tactile sensitivity in the hind paw was assessed in behavioral tests using von Frey filaments. The presence of 'allodynia' was defined as a withdrawal response to a filament of 10 g or less. Under halothane/oxygen anesthesia the effects of SCS (50 Hz, 0.2 ms, 80-620 microA, 5 min.) on mechanically evoked (brush and innocuous press on the hind paw) responses and spontaneous discharges were investigated in wide-dynamic range (WDR) neurons in three groups of animals: (1) rats that displayed 'allodynia' after nerve ligation (2) rats without signs of 'allodynia' after surgery and (3) control, intact rats. A significantly increased frequency of spontaneous discharge and of responsiveness to brush and press was found in the group of allodynic, as compared with non-allodynic and control rats. The majority (63%) of the investigated neurons in these animals displayed afterdischarge in response to press stimulation. SCS induced a significant depression of both the principal response and the afterdischarge in allodynic rats: the discharge during brush stimulation was reduced to 86 +/- 8.2% and during press to 77.4 +/- 4.5% as compared with the prestimulation value. These depressive effects on evoked responses in allodynic rats outlasted SCS by 10.5 +/- 1.7 min during which time the responses gradually recovered. The frequency of spontaneous discharge was markedly decreased in approximately one third of the neurons, whereas in another third it was increased. In non-allodynic and control rats, SCS had no significant depressive effects on the evoked responses and spontaneous discharge. The results suggest that SCS may provide a suppressive action on dorsal horn neuronal hyperexcitability associated with signs of peripheral neuropathy. The suppressive effect of SCS on tactile allodynia, as previously observed in behavioral experiments, presumably corresponds to a normalization of the excitability of WDR cells in response to innocuous stimuli.     

Spinal substance P release in vivo during the induction of long-term potentiation in dorsal horn neurons

Long-term potentiation (LTP) in wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons in the dorsal horn has been suggested to contribute to central sensitization and the development of chronic pain. Indirect experimental evidence indicates an involvement of substance P (SP), in this respect. The aim of the present study was to monitor the extracellular level of substance P-like immunoreactivity (SP-LI) in the dorsal horn of the rat during and after induction of LTP in WDR neurons in vivo. Electrophysiological recordings of single (WDR) neurons were performed in parallel with microdialysis in the dorsal horn under urethane-anaesthesia. The amount of SP-LI in the microdialysate was determined by radioimmunoassay. As previously shown, high frequency conditioning stimulation of the sciatic nerve induced an increased firing response of WDR neurons. An increased response to C-fibre stimulation, but not A-fibre stimulation, could be determined. A significant increase of the extracellular level of SP-LI in the dorsal horn was detected during, but not after, induction of LTP. These data suggest that SP may be involved in the induction of LTP by high frequency stimulation. However, the maintenance of spinal LTP following high frequency peripheral nerve stimulation does not seem to depend on an increased release of SP.     

A selective increase in Fos expression in spinal dorsal horn neurons following graded thermal stimulation in rats with experimental mononeuropathy

In order to clarify the central mechanisms of thermal hyperalgesia produced by peripheral nerve injury, Fos protein-like immunoreactive (Fos-LI) cells in spinal dorsal horn neurons were studied in rats with chronic constriction nerve injury (CCI) following graded thermal stimulation of the hind paw. The graded thermal stimuli (cold: 5, 10 and 15°C, heat: 42, 46 and 54°C) were applied to the planter surface of the operated hind paw 14 days after CCI or sham operation, and the number of Fos-LI cells in the spinal dorsal horn was quantified. Many Fos-LI cells were expressed in the superficial laminae of the spinal dorsal horn both in sham-operated and CCI rats following thermal stimulation. Fos-LI cells were mainly restricted to the medial half of the superficial laminae of the spinal dorsal horn, and were sparsely distributed in the deeper laminae. The number of Fos-LI cells in the superficial laminae (laminae I–II) of the dorsal horn was significantly higher in CCI rats after stimulation at 10 and 46°C, but not at the other stimulating temperatures (5, 15, 42, and 54°C) as compared to that in sham-operated rats. In laminae III–IV, the number of Fos-LI cells was significantly higher at all stimulus temperatures in CCI rats when compared to the sham-operated rats. No distribution difference of Fos-LI cells was observed between CCI and sham-operated rats in laminae V–VI. Thus, in the spinal dorsal horn of the CCI rats, there was a selective increase in thermal stimulus-induced Fos-LI cells in the superficial dorsal horn after stimulating at near noxious threshold intensities and a non-selective increase in Fos-LI cells in laminae III-IV after both noxious and innocuous thermal stimuli. The increase of Fos-LI cells in the superficial laminae may be related to hypersensitivity to noxious stimuli while the increase of Fos-LI cells in laminae III–IV may be related to an increased sensitivity to both noxious and innocuous stimuli that leads to increased reflex activity following nerve injury.     

Dorsal raphe stimulation reduces responses of parafascicular neurons to noxious stimulation

Spontaneous activity, responses to noxious stimulation and response to electrical stimulation of the dorsal raphe were recorded extracellularly from single units in the parafascicularis (PF) nucleus in the rat. Three types of spontaneous activity were found: 'slow' firing units (1-10 spikes/sec), 'bursting' units (bursts of 2-5 spikes/10-20 msec, bursts repeat every 1-2 sec), and 'fast' firing units (15-40 spikes/sec). Noxious stimulation increased the firing rate of 63% of the slow cells and 87% of the bursting cells, while the fast firing units did not respond. Dorsal raphe (DR) stimulation decreased the firing rates of both the slow and bursting PF cells only. The degree of suppression of PF units was directly related to the frequency and intensity of the DR stimulation. When the noxious stimulus was combined with DR stimulation, DR stimulation inhibited the increase in firing rate caused by the noxious stimulus. The firing rate during combined DR stimulation and noxious stimulation averaged 51% of that during the noxious stimulation alone. In several units, DR stimulation had no effect on spontaneous activity when applied alone but did decrease the effects of noxious stimulation when applied simultaneously. The results indicate that in addition to other possible mechanisms, the DR may affect responses to noxious stimuli via an ascending modulation pathway to the parafascicularis nucleus in the thalamus.