多巴胺受体2减轻离体大鼠心肌缺血/再灌注损伤

目的 观察多巴胺受体2(DR2)对离体大鼠心肌缺血/再灌注(I/R)损伤的影响及其可能机制.方法 将大鼠40只,每组n=10,随机分成对照组(control)、I/R组、10 pmol/L Bromocriptine(DR2激动剂)组(Bro),10 μmol/L Haloper-idol(DR2抑制剂)组(Hal).用Langendorff离体灌流装置,复制大鼠心肌I/R损伤模型.Powerlab生理记录仪记录心功能;比色法测定冠脉流出液LDH、CK活性和心肌组织匀浆SOD活性以及MDA含量;TUNEL染色检测心肌细胞凋亡;Western blot检测DR2、Bcl-2、caspase-3和caspase-9蛋白的表达.结果 与对照组比较,I/R组DR2、Bcl-2、caspase-3和cmpase-9蛋白表达、LDH和CK活性、MDA含量和细胞凋亡率均增加(P＜0.01),唯有SOD活性降低,心功能减弱(P＜0.01).与I/R组比较,Bro降低LDH和CK活性、MDA含量、细胞凋亡率、caspase-3和caspase-9的表达,升高SOD活性,改善心功能和进一步增加Bcl-2的表达(P ＜0.01);Hal对上述指标影响不显著.结论 DR2可减轻心肌I/R损伤,其机制与抗氧化、清除自由基、上调Bcl-2表达以及下调caspase-3和caspase-9的表达有关.     

老龄大鼠脑缺血再灌注神经细胞凋亡、Bcl-2、Bax表达与caspase-3活性变化

目的：研究老年与青年急性局灶性脑缺血及再灌注(I/R)后细胞凋亡、Bcl-2、Bax表达与caspase-3活性变化的异同。方法： 采用线栓法建立急性局灶性脑I/R模型，检测青年与老龄大鼠脑缺血3 h及I/R 3 h、6 h、12 h、24 h、 72 h后脑梗死面积、神经细胞凋亡、Bcl-2、Bax表达及caspase-3活性。结果： 老龄大鼠脑缺血3 h和I/R 12 h脑梗死面积较青年大鼠增大。随着I/R时间延长，细胞凋亡明显增加，老龄大鼠出现的早、持续时间长。青年大鼠随着I/R时间的延长Bcl-2表达明显增强，老龄大鼠不明显。老龄大鼠I/R Bax表达早于青年大鼠，其表达增强及持续时间较长。老龄大鼠I/R caspase-3的激活早于青年大鼠。结论： 老龄大鼠I/R脑组织损伤严重，神经细胞凋亡显著，其机制与Bax表达增加、casspase-3活性增高及其持续时间长有关。     

缺血后处理抑制缺血再灌注大鼠心肌内质网应激相关凋亡

目的:研究缺血后处理(I-postC)对缺血/再灌注(I/R)大鼠心肌组织Caspase-12和CHOP(CEBP Homologous Protein)的影响,从内质网应激角度探讨I-postC抑制I/R心肌细胞凋亡的机制。方法:采用Wistar大鼠在体心脏I/R模型,以TUNEL法检测细胞凋亡,并检测血浆乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)和肌酸激酶(CK-MB)含量及心肌组织超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性和丙二醛(MDA)含量,免疫印迹法检测心肌组织Caspase-12、CHOP、Bcl-2和Bax表达。结果:I-postC显著抑制I/R所致的心肌细胞凋亡(较I/R组低74.3%,P<0.01),上调Bcl-2表达(较I/R组高53.2%,P<0.05)并抑制Bax表达上调(较I/R组低46.1%,P<0.05);与I/R组比较,I-postC组心肌细胞LDH和CK-MB漏出减少(分别较I/R组低37.6%和34.3%,P<0.01),心肌组织MDA含量降低(较I/R组低38.4%,P<0.05),SOD活性上调(较I/R组高18.3%,P<0.05);I-postC抑制I/R所诱导的Caspase-12活化和CHOP表达上调(分别较I/R组低41.7%和33.3%,P<0.01)。结论:I-postC通过抑制Caspase-12活化和CHOP过表达,减轻内质网应激相关凋亡,保护大鼠I/R心肌。     

巴曲酶对狗心脏缺血/再灌注损伤中血栓素A_2水平的影响

目的 :研究巴曲酶 (BAT)对狗心脏缺血 /再灌注 (I/R)损伤过程中血栓素A2 (TXA2 )水平的影响。方法 :结扎狗左冠状动脉前降支 3 0min ,恢复血流 90min ,造成I/R模型 ,于缺血前或缺血后 15min静注BAT( 1U/kg) ,测定血浆、心肌TXB2 浓度以及血浆磷酸肌酸激酶 (CK)和乳酸脱氢酶 (LDH)活性 ,并检测心脏功能 ,观察病理学变化。结果 :I/R组心肌组织及血浆TXB2 水平明显升高 ,血浆CK及LDH活性明显降低 ,心功能受损。病理学发现心肌纤维水肿、排列紊乱、线粒体水肿、嵴明显断裂、细胞核皱缩。给予BAT后 ,动物死亡率、再灌期血浆及心肌TXB2 水平、血浆CK及LDH活性以及LVEDP明显低于I/R组 ,而±dp/dtmax明显高于I/R组 ,病理学检查无明显损伤。结论 :BAT能够降低血浆及心肌TXA2 水平减轻心肌组织I/R损伤。     

miR-214-5p靶向PAK4对缺血再灌注大鼠的心肌损伤和免疫反应的调节作用

目的:探讨微小RNA-214-5p(miR-214-5p)靶向p21活化蛋白激酶4(PAK4)对缺血再灌注(I/R)大鼠的心肌损伤和免疫反应的作用。方法:将健康雄性SD大鼠随机分为假手术(sham)组、I/R组、Ad-Scramble组和Ad-miR-214组(n=9)。在大鼠左心室前壁6个不同的位点注入腺病毒;4 d后,缝合左前部下行冠状动脉构建I/R模型。RT-qPCR检测miR-214的表达水平,HE染色观察心肌损伤,ELISA检测心肌损伤标志物(CK-MB、Mb和cTnI)和炎症因子(IL-6、IL-1β和TNF-α)的水平,流式细胞术检测心肌细胞凋亡率,试剂盒检测MDA含量和SOD活性,基因软件预测靶基因并通过双萤光素酶报告验证,Western blot检测caspase-3、caspase-9、Bcl-2、Bax、PAK4、p-Akt和p-mTOR表达水平。结果:miR-214在I/R大鼠心肌细胞中低表达(P<0.01);miR-214-5p过表达减轻I/R大鼠心肌损伤程度,下调CK-MB、Mb和cTnI表达,降低心肌细胞凋亡率,上调Bcl-2表达,下调Bax、cas...     

MAPK介导外源性硫化氢对大鼠肾缺血再灌注引起的肾脏和远位心脏损伤的保护作用

目的探讨外源性硫化氢(H_2S)对大鼠肾缺血再灌注损伤(renal ischemia-reperfusion injury, RIRI)引起的肾脏和远位心脏损伤的保护作用及可能机制。方法 Wistar雄性大鼠30只,随机分为5组,分别为假手术组、I/R A组、I/R B组、NaHS A组和NaHS B组,每组6只。采用单侧肾动脉结扎建立RIRI大鼠模型,其中I/R A组和I/R B组分别缺血30 min和60 min后再灌注180 min,NaHS A组和NaHS B组在I/R A组和I/R B组的基础上于再灌注前30 min腹腔注射NaHS(100μg/Kg)。实验结束后检测大鼠肾脏和心脏的形态学变化,ELISA法检测血清肌酐(Scr)、尿素氮(BUN)和心肌肌钙蛋白I(TnI)的水平。TUNEL实验检测肾脏和心脏细胞凋亡,再采用ELISA法检测H_2S、EPK、JNK、p38MAPK和Caspase 3的水平。结果与假手术组相比,I/R A组肾脏和心脏形态学损伤较轻,I/R B组损伤较重,I/R A组和I/R B组大鼠Scr和BUN水平明显增加,心脏组织TnI水平明显下降(P0.01),分别与I/R A组和I/R B组相比,NaHS A组和NaHS B组肾脏和心脏损伤明显减轻,Scr、BUN和心脏TnI水平进一步改善,差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。另外,与假手术组相比,I/R A组和I/R B组肾小管上皮细胞和心肌细胞呈不同程度的凋亡,H_2S水平明显下降,ERK、JNK、p38MAPK和Caspase 3的水平显著增加;分别与I/R A组和I/R B组相比,NaHS A组和NaHS B组上述细胞凋亡程度明显减少,H_2S、ERK、JNK、p38MAPK和Caspase 3水平显著改善,差异有统计学意义(P0.05或P0.01)。结论外源性NaHS可明显减轻RIRI引起的大鼠肾脏和远位心脏的损伤,其机制可能与H_2S下调p38MAPK、JNK和ERK蛋白的表达,从而抑制肾脏和心肌细胞的凋亡进程有关。     

硫化氢对肠缺血再灌注损伤大鼠回肠上皮细胞凋亡的影响

 目的: 探讨硫化氢(H₂S)对大鼠缺血再灌注(I/R)损伤回肠上皮细胞线粒体形态和功能及凋亡的影响。方法: 24只雄性Wistar大鼠随机分为假手术(sham)组、I/R组和I/R+NaHS组。建立大鼠肠I/R损伤模型。在灌注前10 min时经I/R+NaHS组大鼠尾静脉注入100 μmol/kg NaHS后按1 mg·kg^-1·h^-1输注直到再灌注2 h,实验结束后取回肠标本测定回肠上皮细胞形态和呼吸功能指标。敏感硫电极法测定血浆H₂S含量。RT-PCR检测回肠组织Bcl-2和Bax mRNA表达,Western blot 检测总caspase-3、活化型caspase-3、细胞色素C(Cyt C)、Bcl-2和Bax蛋白表达。结果: I/R组线粒体的面积、体积密度、最大直径、最小直径、等效直径以及活化型caspase-3、Cyt C和Bax表达均显著大于I/R+NaHS和sham组(P<0.01)。I/R组线粒体数量、周长、比表面、面积密度和粒子数密度、血浆H₂S、R₃、R₄、RCR、P/O和Bcl-2表达均显著小于I/R+NaHS和sham组(P<0.01)。结论: 硫化氢下调活化型caspase-3、Cyt C和Bax的蛋白水平,上调Bcl-2表达,对I/R损伤大鼠回肠上皮细胞线粒体形态和功能均有保护作用。     

西洋参茎叶总皂苷对缺血/再灌注大鼠心肌线粒体膜电位及细胞凋亡的影响

 目的：研究西洋参茎叶总皂苷 (PQS) 对大鼠缺血/再灌注 (I/R) 损伤后心肌细胞凋亡的影响,并从线粒体膜电位 (ΔΨm) 及线粒体凋亡通路探讨其可能的机制。方法：健康雄性SD大鼠90只,随机分为假手术(sham)组、模型(I/R)组、PQS (200 mg·kg-1·d-1, 灌胃6周)+I/R组、环孢霉素A (CsA;10 mg·kg-1,再灌前10 min腹腔注射)组、CsA+I/R组和PQS+CsA+I/R组,各组n=15。除sham组和CsA组大鼠开胸后冠状动脉左前降支（LAD）下穿线不结扎外,其余各组大鼠常规麻醉后,结扎LAD 30 min,再灌注120 min复制I/R模型。生化分析仪测血清乳酸脱氢酶（LDH）含量,氯化三苯基四氮唑（TTC）和伊文思蓝双染法测心梗面积,原位缺口末端标记法（TUNEL）检测各组大鼠心肌细胞凋亡情况,Western blotting检测细胞凋亡相关蛋白的表达。采用JC-1作为荧光探针,用激光共聚焦显微镜和荧光酶标仪测定ΔΨm水平。结果：与sham组比较,I/R组血清LDH活性、心梗面积和心肌细胞凋亡率均显著升高（P<0.05）;与I/R组相比,PQS+I/R组、CsA+I/R组和PQS+CsA+I/R组血清LDH活性、心梗面积和心肌细胞凋亡率均显著降低（P<0.05）。Western blotting结果显示,与sham组相比,I/R组心肌Bcl-2蛋白表达量降低,Bax、胞浆cytochrome C和cleaved caspase-3升高（均P<0.05）;与I/R组相比,PQS+I/R组、CsA+I/R组和PQS+CsA+I/R组心肌Bcl-2蛋白表达量升高,Bax、胞浆cytochrome C及心肌cleaved caspase-3蛋白表达量均降低（P<0.05）。激光共聚焦显微镜观察结果示,I/R组线粒体JC-1染色后红色荧光强度减弱,荧光酶标仪测相对荧光单位（RFU） 较sham组降低（P<0.05）;PQS+I/R组、CsA+I/R组和PQS+CsA+I/R组RFU均较I/R组升高（P<0.05）。结论：PQS显著降低大鼠I/R后心肌细胞损伤,减少细胞凋亡,其机制与维持再灌注期ΔΨm稳定、抑制线粒体凋亡通路的激活有关。     

二氧化硫对大鼠缺血再灌注心脏的损伤作用

目的观察二氧化硫(SO2)在心肌缺血再灌注损伤中的作用。方法大鼠心脏分为:I/R组,SO2组及天冬氨酸异羟肟酸(HDX)组。采用Langendorff离体心脏灌注模型。MacLab数据采集系统监测离体心脏功能。结果SO2组心功能恢复率明显低于I/R组(P<0.05,P<0.01);HDX组显著高于I/R组(P<0.05,P<0.01)。SO2组冠脉流液中乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)、肌酸激酶(CK)、谷氨酸-草酰乙酸转移酶(GOT)活性、肌红蛋白(Mb)含量及心肌丙二醛(MDA)、共轭双烯键(CD)含量及GOT活性显著高于I/R组(P<0.05,P<0.01);HDX组冠脉流液中上述指标明显低于I/R组(P<0.05,P<0.01)。SO2组心肌还原型谷胱甘肽(GSH)含量明显低于I/R组(P<0.05);HDX组心肌GSH含量显著高于I/R组(P<0.01)。结论SO2参与了大鼠心肌缺血再灌注损伤。增加心肌脂质过氧化及降低心肌还原型谷胱甘肽含量可能与SO2心肌损伤有关。     

巴曲酶对狗心脏缺血/再灌注损伤中血栓素A2水平的影响

目的:研究巴曲酶(BAT)对狗心脏缺血/再灌注(I/R)损伤过程中血栓素A₂(TXA₂)水平的影响。方法:结扎狗左冠状动脉前降支30 min, 恢复血流90 min,造成I/R模型,于缺血前或缺血后15min静注BAT(1U/kg),测定血浆、心肌TXB₂浓度以及血浆磷酸肌酸激酶(CK)和乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)活性,并检测心脏功能,观察病理学变化。结果: I/R组心肌组织及血浆TXB₂水平明显升高, 血浆CK及LDH活性明显降低,心功能受损。病理学发现心肌纤维水肿、排列紊乱、线粒体水肿、嵴明显断裂、细胞核皱缩。给予BAT后,动物死亡率、再灌期血浆及心肌TXB₂水平、血浆CK及LDH活性以及LVEDP明显低于I/R组,而±dp/dt max明显高于I/R组,病理学检查无明显损伤。结论:BAT能够降低血浆及心肌TXA₂水平减轻心肌组织I/R损伤。     

Renal dysplasia and asplenia in two sibs

A family is reported in which two sibs, one male and the other female, both died within 24 hours of birth with enlarged polycystic kidneys. Postmortem histology in the second child showed gross renal dysplasia. In both children the pancreas was enlarged, nodular and cystic but the liver appeared macroscopically normal. In the second child, histological examination confirmed pancreatic fibrosis with cystic dilation of ducts, but showed portal fibrosis with bile duct proliferation in the liver.
This combination of findings is very reminiscent of those in a girl and her brother reported by Ivemark et al. (1959). The children reported here also showed absence or hypoplasia of the spleen, cardiac anomalies and other features of the Ivemark syndrome (Ivemark 1955), a quite different, usually sporadic, congenital disorder. It is suggested that the children described here have a distinct lethal congenital disorder, probably inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.     

Schizophrenia in a North Swedish geographical isolate, 1900–1977. Epidemiology, genetics and biochemistry

Over 200 schizophrenic patients belonging to three major and interrelated pedigree complexes have been investigated over the past 30 years in a North Swedish geographically isolated population, presently numbering about 6,000. An intensive investigation of a number of biochemical correlates and genetic markers in a few selected families belonging to one of the major pedigrees has indicated new strategies for the current research program.
Schizophrenia, as defined operationally, is significantly associated with decreased activities of two enzymes (1) blood platelet monoamine oxidase, (2) plasma dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and (3) with the genetic marker Gc² (group specific antigen). Both enzymes are subject to genetic variation. A positive score for linkage between schizophrenia and low plasma DBH activity has been calculated, but, so far, available data are insufficient for discrimination between linkage and partial contribution of genetically controlled low plasma DBH to the pathogenesis of the disease. Alternatively, both mechanisms could be involved.
As a model for continued research, schizophrenia is explained as based on a double dominant-recessive genotype (Aabb), representing a vulnerability which in about 50 % of cases develops into clinical schizophrenia. It is suggested that the dominant mutation (A) operates on or affects MAO activity, and that the recessive genotype (bb) is instrumental in low variates of DBH activity and very likely such variates within the normal range of physiological variation. Moreover, it is suggested that the combined effects of MAO- and DBH-reduced efficiency on the metabolism of e.g. dopamine could be an essential pathogenic mechanism for the schizophrenic illness which is segregating in this population.     

The dominant diseases of modernized societies as omega-3 essential fatty acid deficiency syndrome: Substrate beriberi

About 1900, modern food selection and processing caused widespread $\text{epidemics}$ of the B vitamin deficiency diseases of beriberi and pellagra which, for genetic reasons, often expressed as different diseases ranging from bowel and heart disease to dermatoses and psychoses. But the B vitamins merely help convert essential fatty acids (EFA) into the prostaglandin (PG) tissue regulators and it now turns out that, through hydrogenation, milling and selection of w3-poor southern foods, we have also been systematically depleting, by as much as 90%, a newly discovered trace Nordic EFA (w3) of special importance to primates and sole precursor of the PG3(4) series, even as a concurrent fiber deficiency increases body demand for EFA. Since substrate EFA is processed by many B vitamin catalysts, an EFA deficiency will mimic a $\text{panh}$ypovitaminosis B, i.e., a mixture of $\text{substrate}$ beriberi and $\text{substrate}$ pellagra resembling vitamin beriberi and pellagra but exhibiting as even more diverse $\text{endemic}$ disease. This would consitute a second stage of the Modern Malnutrition and explain why some workers now hold the dominant diseases of modermized societies to be new, nutritionally based, pellagraform yet lipid-related and to range, once again, from heart disease to psychosis. It is an assumption that our dominant diseases are unrelated to each other or are merely revealed by our diagnostic acumen and therapeutic success; and that hydrogenating millions of tons of food oils annually, to destroy the rancidity producing w3-EFA, is safe for $\text{primates}$. Extensive beriberiform disease is reported here in 32 typical cases taken from medical practice which responds strikingly to linseed oil supplements (60% w3-EFA) in confirmation of identical results in Capuchins.     

What will studies of Fulani individuals naturally exposed to malaria teach us about protective immunity to malaria?

There are an estimated over 200 million yearly cases of malaria worldwide. Despite concerted international effort to combat the disease, it still causes approximately half a million deaths every year, the majority of which are young children with Plasmodium falciparum infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Successes are largely attributed to malaria prevention strategies, such as insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor spraying, as well as improved access to existing treatments. One important hurdle to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of malaria is our limited understanding of the biology of Plasmodium infection and its complex interaction with the immune system of its human host. Therefore, the elimination of malaria in Africa not only relies on existing tools to reduce malaria burden, but also requires fundamental research to develop innovative approaches. Here, we summarize our discoveries from investigations of ethnic groups of West Africa who have different susceptibility to malaria.     

'Very sore nights and days': the child's experience of illness in early modern England, c.1580-1720

Sick children were ubiquitous in early modern England, and yet they have received very little attention from historians. Taking the elusive perspective of the child, this article explores the physical, emotional, and spiritual experience of illness in England between approximately 1580 and 1720. What was it like being ill and suffering pain? How did the young respond emotionally to the anticipation of death? It is argued that children’s experiences were characterised by profound ambivalence: illness could be terrifying and distressing, but also a source of emotional and spiritual fulfilment and joy. This interpretation challenges the common assumption amongst medical historians that the experiences of early modern patients were utterly miserable. It also sheds light on children’s emotional feelings for their parents, a subject often overlooked in the historiography of childhood. The primary sources used in this article include diaries, autobiographies, letters, the biographies of pious children, printed possession cases, doctors’ casebooks, and theological treatises concerning the afterlife.     

Guidelines for the Validation and Use of Immunoassays for Determination of Introduced Proteins in Biotechnology Enhanced Crops and Derived Food Ingredients

Recent advancements in agricultural biotechnology have created a need for analytical techniques to determine introduced proteins in crops enhanced through modern biotechnology techniques. These proteins are expressed in plant tissues and may be present in food ingredients. Immunoassays are ideally suited for protein detection and may be used as both quantitative and threshold methods. Microplate ELISA and lateral flow devices are two of the most commonly used immunoassay formats for agricultural biotechnology applications. This paper provides general background information and a discussion of criteria for the validation and application of immunochemical methods to the analysis of proteins introduced into plants and food ingredients using biotechnology methods. It is the result of a collaborative effort of members of the Analytical Environmental Immunochemical Consortium. This collaborative effort represents the combined expertise of several organizations to reach consensus on establishing guidelines for the validation and use of immunoassays. Further, the paper offers developers and users a consistent approach to adopting the technology as well as aid in producing accurate and meaningful results.     

HLA in North Colombia Chimila Amerindians

HLA-A,-B,-C,-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles have been studied in Chimila Amerindians from Sabana de San Angel (North Colombian Coast) by using high resolution molecular typing. A frequent extended haplotype was found:HLA-A*24:02-B*51:10-C*15:02-BRB1*04:07-DQB1*03:02 (28.7%) which has also been described in Amerinndian Mayos Mexican population (Mexico, California Gulf, Pacific Ocean). Other haplotypes had already been found in Amerindians from Mexico (Pacific and Atlantic Coast), Peru (highlands and Amazon Basin), Bolivia and North USA. A geographic pattern according to HLA allele or haplotype frequencies is lacking in Amerindians, as already known. Also, five new extended haplotypes were found in Chimila Amerindians. Their HLA-A*24:02 high frequencies characteristic is shared with aboriginal populations of Taiwan; also, HLA-C*01:02 high frequencies are found in New Zealand Maoris, New Caledonians and Kimberly Aborigines from Australia. Finally, this study may show a model of evolutionary factors acting and rising one HLA allele frequency (-A*24:02), but not in others that belong to the same or different HLA loci.     

Ultracryotomy: development and application (with examples from the yeast cytology) (author's transl)

The preparation steps usually necessary for obtaining ultrathin frozen sections of biological material (chemical prefixation, enclosing, cryoprotective treatment, freezing, sectioning, and post-staining the sections for transmission electron microscopy) are submitted to a critical analysis. The application of cryo-ultramicrotomy, in particularly for cytochemical purposes, is reviewed. Fundamental considerations of chemical prefixation and poststaining are supported by examples from yeast cytology. Furthermore, the efficiency of the cryo-ultramicrotomy (electron optical resolution of ultrastructural details) is demonstrated on yeast cells and protoplasts.     

The universal muscular chamber. A basic unit of the genitourinary, cardiovascular, gastro-intestinal, skeletal, cutaneous, respiratory and other systems, endocameral hypertension; and spasm, the key to their idiopathic diseases and arthropathies

Starting with the integument, we see many organs are contractile sacs or multiples thereof, which tubes or bags constitute the major part of the entire body. Recognition of this basic unit and its characteristics sheds new light, individually and collectively, on many disorders previously considered unrelated. Muscular tears and perforations develop in the walls of these chambers, being no way peculiar to those organs, wherein, hydrochloric acid occurs. So, it is not necessary to explain the absence of excessive acid from patients who exhibit holes in the gastric, uterine, aortic, duodenal, rectal, pulmonary, retina, and other walls. Muscle, not acid is the great common factor relating idiopathic disorders in the gastrointestinal tract to each other and to similar diseases in other systems. When the units are linked together, the lesions tend to appear as arthropathies, i.e. at the joints. Rephrasing common-place observations, frees us from conventional, conceptual cul-de-sacs. An observation is only as good as its interpretation, so all possibilities must be considered, otherwise, we will remain blinded by our misconceptions.