Clostridium difficile colitis: a review

Clostridium difficile has become an increasingly important nosocomial pathogen and is one of the most common causes of hospital-acquired diarrhea. The incidence of C difficile infection (CDI) is increasing worldwide. Overuse of antibiotics is felt to be a major contributing factor leading to the increased incidence of CDI. The clinical manifestations of CDI vary from a mild form of the disease to fulminant diarrhea, leading to significant patient morbidity and mortality. The increasing incidence of CDI has a major impact on increasing health care costs. This article will summarize the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment options for CDI, as well as infection-control measures for the prevention of CDI.     

Clostridium difficile: development of a novel candidate vaccine

Clostridium difficile has become the most frequent hospital-acquired infection in North America and the EU. C. difficile infection (CDI) is present worldwide and disease awareness is increasing. In the US, EU, and Canada, in addition to hospital diagnosed disease, CDI has also been reported with increasing frequency in the community. Hypervirulent strains have increased the morbidity and mortality associated with CDI. Current treatment options are suboptimal. Of all patients treated for CDI, 20% relapse and 65% of those experiencing a second relapse become chronic cases. An association between increased serum levels of IgG antibody against toxin A and asymptomatic carriage of C. difficile provides a rationale for vaccine development. Sanofi Pasteur's C. difficile candidate vaccine is being developed for the prevention of primary disease. The target population is adults at risk of CDI, those with planned hospitalization, long-term care/nursing home residents, and adults with co-morbidities requiring frequent/prolonged antibiotic use.     

Risk for Asymptomatic Household Transmission of Clostridioides difficile Infection Associated with Recently Hospitalized Family Members

We evaluated whether hospitalized patients without diagnosed Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) increased the risk for CDI among their family members after discharge. We used 2001–2017 US insurance claims data to compare monthly CDI incidence between persons in households with and without a family member hospitalized in the previous 60 days. CDI incidence among insurance enrollees exposed to a recently hospitalized family member was 73% greater than enrollees not exposed, and incidence increased with length of hospitalization among family members. We identified a dose-response relationship between total days of within-household hospitalization and CDI incidence rate ratio. Compared with persons whose family members were hospitalized <1 day, the incidence rate ratio increased from 1.30 (95% CI 1.19–1.41) for 1–3 days of hospitalization to 2.45 (95% CI 1.66–3.60) for >30 days of hospitalization. Asymptomatic C. difficile carriers discharged from hospitals could be a major source of community-associated CDI cases.     

Comparison of the effect of detergent versus hypochlorite cleaning on environmental contamination and incidence of Clostridium difficile infection

To determine how best to decontaminate the hospital environment of Clostridium difficile, we carried out a cross-over study on two elderly medicine wards to determine whether cleaning with a hypochlorite disinfectant was better than using neutral detergent in reducing the incidence of C. difficile infection (CDI). We examined 1128 environmental samples in two years, 35% of which grew C. difficile. There was a significant decrease of CDI incidence on ward X, from 8.9 to 5.3 cases per 100 admissions (P<0.05) using hypochlorite, but there was no significant effect on ward Y. On ward X the incidence of CDI was significantly associated with the proportion of culture-positive environmental sites (P<0.05). On ward Y the only significant correlation between CDI and C. difficile culture-positive environmental sites was in patient side-rooms (r=0.41, P<0.05). The total daily defined doses of cefotaxime, cephradine and aminopenicillins were similar throughout the trial. These results provide some evidence that use of hypochlorite for environmental cleaning may significantly reduce incidence of CDI, but emphasize the potential for confounding factors.     

Increasing incidence of sterile-site infections due to non-multidrug-resistant, oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among hospitalized patients.

The incidence of community-associated, healthcare-associated, and hospital-acquired sterile-site infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates and the susceptibility of the isolates to non- beta -lactam antibiotics were evaluated for 549 hospitalized patients during a 3-year period. The incidence of community-associated MRSA infection increased significantly. The annual percentage of MRSA isolates from cases of healthcare-associated and hospital-acquired infection that were susceptible to 3 or more non- beta -lactam antibiotics increased significantly.     

SHEL事故分析法在ICU获得性压疮预防中的应用研究

目的采用SHEL模式分析ICU医院内获得性压疮发生的原因,以降低其发生率。方法采用SHEL模式分析ICU20例医院内获得性压疮病例并制订对策,比较采取控制措施前、后ICU压疮预防的效果。结果采取控制措施前ICU医院内获得性压疮发生率为6.25%,SHEL模式分析结果为与人员素质和能力有关(S)占30.0%,与硬件有关(H)占20.0%,与临床环境有关(E)占35.0%,与当事人及他人有关(L)占15.0%;采取控制措施后ICU医院内获得性压疮发生率为2.83%,显著低于采取措施前(P<0.05),SHEL模式分析结果为15.4%与S有关、15.4%与H有关、30.8%与E有关、38.4%与L有关。结论应用SHEL模式分析ICU医院内获得性压疮发生的原因,制定有效的措施,对降低ICU医院内获得性压疮的发生率有着积极的意义。     

Reported measures of hygiene and incidence rates for hospital-acquired diarrhea in 31 French pediatric wards: is there any relationship?

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between hygienic measures reported for the prevention of hospital-acquired diarrhea and incidence rates of hospital-acquired diarrhea. DESIGN: A survey of hospital-acquired diarrhea was conducted between January 1 and March 31, 1999. Multivariate analysis of reported measures of hygiene according to the observed incidence rates of hospital-acquired diarrhea was performed. SETTING: Thirty-one pediatric or neonatal wards located in hospitals in the southeast of France, selected as a convenience sample of wards volunteering to participate. PATIENTS: A total of 6,726 children younger than 5 years. RESULTS: The overall incidence rate of hospital-acquired diarrhea was 3.6%. Rotavirus was responsible for 69% of the cases of hospital-acquired diarrhea. Among the hygienic measures reported by the wards for preventing hospital-acquired diarrhea were using a single room or cohorting (77.4%), washing hands (83.9%), wearing gowns (80.6%), and wearing disposable single-use gloves for diapering a patient (51.6%). By multivariate analysis, the variables statistically associated with a lower incidence of hospital-acquired diarrhea were restricting the patient's mobility outside his or her room, keeping the patient's door closed, and having fewer than 20 beds in the ward, with adjusted odds ratios of 0.34 (95% confidence interval [CI95], 0.18 to 0.65), 0.33 (CI95, 0.23 to 0.47), and 0.42 (CI95 0.30 to 0.60), respectively. CONCLUSION: Simple preventive measures can decrease the rate of hospital-acquired diarrhea in pediatric wards.     

The prevalence and estimates of the cumulative incidence of hospital-acquired infections among patients admitted to Auckland District Health Board Hospitals in New Zealand.

OBJECTIVES: To report the pooled results of seven prevalence surveys of hospital-acquired infections conducted between November 1996 and November 1999, and to use the data to predict the cumulative incidence of hospital-acquired infections in the same patient group. DESIGN: The summary and modeling of data gathered from the routine surveillance of the point prevalence of hospital-acquired infections. SETTING: Auckland District Health Board Hospitals (Auckland DHBH), the largest publicly funded hospital group in New Zealand supplying secondary and tertiary services. PATIENTS: All inpatients. METHOD: Point-prevalence surveys were conducted including all patients in Auckland DHBH. Standard definitions of hospital-acquired infection were used. The data from the seven surveys were pooled and used in a modeling exercise to predict the cumulative incidence of hospital-acquired infection. An existing method for the conversion of prevalence to cumulative incidence was applied. Results are presented for all patients and stratified by clinical service and site of hospital-acquired infection. RESULTS: The underlying patterns of hospital-acquired infection by site and service were stable during the seven time periods. The prevalence rate for all patients was 9.5%, with 553 patients identified with one or more hospital-acquired infections from a population of 5,819. The predicted cumulative incidence for all patients was 6.33% (95% confidence interval, 6.20% to 6.46%). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence and the predicted cumulative incidence are similar to rates reported in the international literature. The validity of the predicted cumulative incidence derived here is not known. If it were accurate, then the application of this method would represent a cost-effective alternative to incidence studies.     

Meta-analysis to assess risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection

SUMMARY: Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is the most common cause of hospital-acquired diarrhoea. It is estimated that 15-20% of patients experience recurrence of CDI. A limited number of studies have looked at the risk factors for recurrent CDI. We conducted a meta-analysis of observational studies and randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to assess risk factors for recurrent CDI. Studies were identified using the PubMed database and search terms 'Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea' or 'pseudomembranous colitis'. Both observational studies and RCTs were included. In all, 1215 studies were identified of which 48 met the inclusion criteria. Twelve studies involving 1382 patients with CDI met the complete eligibility requirements. Odds ratios and information on study quality were abstracted by two investigators independently. To be included in the analysis, each risk factor was required to be evaluated by at least three separate studies. Continued use of non-C. difficile antibiotics after diagnosis of CDI (OR: 4.23; 95% CI: 2.10-8.55; P<0.001), concomitant receipt of antacid medications (OR: 2.15; 95% CI: 1.13-4.08; P=0.019), and older age (OR: 1.62; 95% CI: 1.11-2.36; P=0.0012) were significantly associated with increased risk of recurrent CDI. Significant prognostic risk factors were identified as risk factors for CDI recurrence. Additional or novel interventions may be required for these patients to prevent CDI recurrence.     

Risk factors for hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia: a case-control study

A case-control study was undertaken in an acute district general hospital to identify risk factors for hospital-acquired bacteraemia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Cases of hospital-acquired MRSA bacteraemia were defined as consecutive patients from whom MRSA was isolated from a blood sample taken on the third or subsequent day after admission. Controls were randomly selected from patients admitted to the hospital over the same time period with a length of stay of more than 2 days who did not have bacteraemia. Data on 42 of the 46 cases of hospital-acquired bacteraemia and 90 of the 92 controls were available for analysis. There were no significant differences in the age or sex of cases and controls. After adjusting for confounding factors, insertion of a central line [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 35.3, 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.8-325.5] or urinary catheter (aOR 37.1, 95% CI 7.1-193.2) during the admission, and surgical site infection (aOR 4.3, 95% CI 1.2-14.6) all remained independent risk factors for MRSA bacteraemia. The adjusted population attributable fraction, showed that 51% of hospital-acquired MRSA bacteraemia cases were attributable to a urinary catheter, 39% to a central line, and 16% to a surgical site infection. In the United Kingdom, measures to reduce the incidence of hospital-acquired MRSA bacteraemia in acute general hospitals should focus on improving infection control procedures for the insertion and, most importantly, care of central lines and urinary catheters.     

Trends in Incidence and Clinical Outcomes of Clostridioides difficile Infection,Hong Kong

We conducted a territorywide survey to investigate the epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical outcomes of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) among hospitalized patients in Hong Kong. A total of 17,105 cases of CDI were identified, of which 15,717 (91.9%) were healthcare-associated and 1,025 (6.0%) were community-associated. Although CDI incidence increased substantially from 2006 to 2017, it plateaued in 2018 and 2019. The 30-day mortality rates decreased from 20.1% in 2015 to 16.8% in 2019, whereas the 60-day recurrence rates remained constant at ≈11% during the study period. Cross-correlation statistic showed significant correlations between incidence trend and overall antimicrobial drug use (r = 0.865, p<0.001), which has decreased as a result of an antibiotic stewardship program initiated in 2017. Our data suggest a turning point in C. difficile epidemiology that could be related to the changing pattern of antimicrobial drug use.     

慢性肾脏疾病非透析患者医院感染调查分析

目的 了解慢性肾脏疾病非透析患者医院感染的特点及相关因素。方法 对2003年6月1日-2006年6月1日间，996例慢性肾脏疾病非透析患者的临床资料进行回顾分析，其中112例发生医院感染，对感染部位、病原菌、肾功能、血清白蛋白、血红蛋白等进行比较分析。结果 112例医院感染患者共发生了124例次感染，感染率为11．2％，比同期总医院感染率6．8％显著增高（P〈0．05），病死率为20．5％，较未发生医院感染的慢性肾脏疾病非透析患者明显升高（P〈O．01）；感染部位主要为泌尿道（46．4％）和肺部（36．9％），病原菌检出革兰阳性菌28例次、革兰阴性菌21例次、真菌8例次，混合感染22例次，肾功能、血清白蛋白、血红蛋白与医院感染有相关性。结论 慢性肾脏疾病非透析患者医院感染病原菌主要是革兰阳性菌，以泌尿道感染发生率较高，肾功能不全、低白蛋白血症、低血红蛋白、广谱抗菌药物应用、侵袭性操作等均是医院感染的危险因素。     

Surveillance for hospital-acquired infections on surgical wards in a Dutch university hospital.

OBJECTIVES: To determine incidence rates of hospital-acquired infections and to develop preventive measures to reduce the risk of hospital-acquired infections. METHODS: Prospective surveillance for hospital-acquired infections was performed during a 5-year period in the wards housing general and vascular, thoracic, orthopedic, and general gynecologic and gynecologic-oncologic surgery of the University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands. Data were collected from patients with and without infections, using criteria of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. RESULTS: The infection control team recorded 648 hospital-acquired infections affecting 550 (14%) of 3,845 patients. The incidence density was 17.8 per 1,000 patient-days. Patients with hospital-acquired infections were hospitalized for 19.8 days versus 7.7 days for patients without hospital-acquired infections. Prolongation of stay among patients with hospital-acquired infections may have resulted in 664 fewer admissions due to unavailable beds. Different specialties were associated with different infection rates at different sites, requiring a tailor-made approach. Interventions were recommended for respiratory tract infections in the thoracic surgery ward and for surgical-site infections in the orthopedic and gynecologic surgery wards. CONCLUSIONS: Surveillance in four surgical wards showed that each had its own prominent infection, risk factors, and indications for specific recommendations. Because prospective surveillance requires extensive resources, we considered a modified approach based on a half-yearly point-prevalence survey of hospital-acquired infections in all wards of our hospital. Such surveillance can be extended with procedure-specific prospective surveillance when indicated.     

NICU重症患者医院获得性肺炎危险因素分析与预防控制措施

目的探讨神经外科重症监护病房(NICU)患者医院获得性肺炎相关因素及预防控制措施。方法采用回顾性调查方法,对NICU 368例医院获得性肺炎患者相关因素进行分析。结果医院NICU重症患者医院获得性肺炎发生率10.33%,其危险因素与患者的年龄、基础疾病、神智状态、住院时间、床单位使用面积、气管切开等侵入性操作有密切关系。结论减少医院获得性肺炎的危险因素是降低医院获得性肺炎发生行之有效的控制措施。     

Clostridium difficile Infections among Hospitalized Children, United States, 1997�C2006

We evaluated the annual rate (cases/10,000 hospitalizations) of pediatric hospitalizations with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI; International Classification of Diseases, 9th revision, clinical modification code 008.45) in the United States. We performed a time-series analysis of data from the Kids’ Inpatient Database within the Health Care Cost and Utilization Project during 1997–2006 and a cross-sectional analysis within the National Hospital Discharge Survey during 2006. The rate of pediatric CDI-related hospitalizations increased from 7.24 to 12.80 from 1997 through 2006; the lowest rate was for children <1 year of age. Although incidence was lowest for newborns (0.5), incidence for children <1 year of age who were not newborns (32.01) was similar to that for children 5–9 years of age (35.27), which in turn was second only to incidence for children 1–4 years of age (44.87). Pediatric CDI-related hospitalizations are increasing. A better understanding of the epidemiology and outcomes of CDI is urgently needed.     

Prevention of infections associated with permanent cardiac antiarrhythmic devices by implementation of a comprehensive infection control program.

OBJECTIVE: To implement a comprehensive infection control (IC) program for prevention of cardiac device-associated infections (CDIs). DESIGN: Prospective before-after trial with 2 years of follow-up. SETTING: A tertiary-care, university-affiliated medical center. PATIENTS: A consecutive sample of all adults undergoing cardiac device implantation between 1997 and 2002. INTERVENTION: An IC program was implemented during late 2001 and included staff education, preoperative modification of patient risk factors, intraoperative control of strict aseptic technique, surgical scrubbing and attire, control of environmental risk factors, optimization of antibiotic prophylaxis, postoperative wound care, and active surveillance. The clinical endpoint was CDI rates. RESULTS: Between 1997 and 2000, there were 7 CDIs among 725 procedures (mean annual CDI incidence, 1%). During the first 9 months of 2001, there were 7 CDIs among 167 procedures (4.2%; P = .007): CDIs increased from 7 among 576 to 3 among 124 following pacemaker implantation (P = .39) and from 0 among 149 to 4 among 43 following cardioverter-defibrillator implantation (P = .002). Of the 14 CDIs, 5 involved superficial wounds, 7 involved deep wounds, and 2 involved endocarditis. Following intervention, there were no cases of CDI among 316 procedures during 24 months of follow-up (4.2% reduction; P = .0005). CONCLUSIONS: We observed a high CDI rate associated with substantial morbidity. IC measures had an impact on CDI. Although the relative weight of each measure in the prevention of CDI remains unknown, our results suggest that implementation of a comprehensive IC program is feasible and efficacious in this setting.     

经口寰枢椎复位钢板术后医院获得性肺炎的相关因素分析

目的探讨经口寰枢椎复位钢板(TARP)内固定手术患者发生医院获得性肺炎(HAP)的危险因素。方法收集189例行TARP手术患者的临床资料,评价术后肺部感染情况,分为HAP组与非HAP组,比较两组患者围术期观察项目的差异性,并进行logistic回归多因素分析。结果 25例占13.2%的患者发生医院获得性肺炎,单因素分析发现吸烟、术前低体重指数、气管切开、慢性肺疾病、机械通气、Frankle分级A~B、气管导管留置时间、抑酸药物使用时间、激素使用时间、鼻胃管留置时间、术中输液量、手术时间、血清白蛋白<35 g/L和血清钠<135 mmol/L与术后HAP有关;logistic多因素回归分析发现只有血清白蛋白<35 g/L(OR=5.404,P=0.016)、气管切开(OR=68.051,P=0.000)、Frankle分级A~B(OR=10.683,P=0.001)、气管导管留置时间>4 d(OR=8.009,P=0.002)、手术时间>6 h(OR=8.606,P=0.002)为独立危险因素。结论血清白蛋白<35 g/L、气管切开、Frankle分级A~B、气管导管留置时间>4 d、手术时间>6 h是TARP术后HAP的重要危险因素。     

Update on Clostridium difficile infections

Clostridium difficile infections (CDI) occur primarily in hospitalized patients with risk factors such as concomitant or recent use of antibiotics. CDI related additional costs are important for the global population and health-care facilities. CDI epidemiology has changed since 2003: they became more frequent boosted by large outbreaks, more severe, more resistant to antibiotic treatment, and spread to new groups of population without any risk factor. This is partly due to the emergence and worldwide dissemination of new and more virulent C. difficile strains such as the epidemic clone 027/NAP1/BI. The host immune response plays a central role in the pathogenesis of CDI and could also be involved in the occurrence of recurrent or severe forms. New guidelines including new molecular tests (NAAT) have recently clarified and simplified the diagnostic strategies for the microbiological diagnosis of CDI. The CDI incidence was proven to be related to the level of clinical suspicion and the frequency of microbiological screening for C. difficile. The current recommendations for the treatment of CDI mention oral metronidazole as the first line treatment for mild to moderate diarrhea. Oral vancomycin use should be restricted to severe cases. In the absence of consensus, the treatment of multiple recurrences remains a major concern. New and more targeted antibiotics and innovative therapeutic strategies (fecal transplantation, monoclonal antibodies, and vaccination) have emerged as new therapies for CDI.     

新生儿医院感染特点与危险因素

目的 探讨新生儿医院感染特点和危险因素.方法 采用目标性监测方法,对2007年1月-2010年12月入住新生儿病房的6699例患儿进行监测.结果 4年共监测新生儿6699例,发生医院感染146例,感染率2.18％;监测以新生儿病房搬迁前医院感染率较高;感染部位以呼吸道为主,占50.00％,其次为皮肤黏膜占19.18％,口腔占10.27％,胃肠道占7.54％,其他占13.01％;新生儿医院感染易感因素主要与新生儿的出生体重、住院天数、有侵入性操作及使用抗菌药物有关.结论 空气及环境污染致呼吸道感染率高是医院感染特点;低体重儿、住院天数长、不合理使用抗菌药物以及侵入性操作是新生儿医院感染的危险因素.     

Quality assurance and the role of infection control: a retrospective study of hospital-acquired infection in a District General Hospital based on three sites, 1978-1988.

A retrospective study of hospital-acquired infection surveillance data from 1978 to 1988 showed a reduction in the incidence rate from 7.6 to 3.9% respectively, while simultaneously there was a 25% increase in throughput of patients. The reduction in the incidence of hospital-acquired infection is considered to be multifactorial. Since the rates of infection appear to be significantly altered by staff awareness and infection control programmes, they could be used as an outcome measure to reflect the quality of care in hospitals.