Ethnic Differences in Sexual Attitudes of U.S. College Students: Gender,Acculturation, and Religiosity Factors

Although it has been hypothesized that culture and religion play an important role in sexuality, the relative roles of acculturation and religiosity on ethnic differences in sexual attitudes have not been often empirically explored. The present study assessed differences in sexual attitudes in Euro-American, Asian, and Hispanic American populations using measures of acculturation to analyze the relative effects of heritage and mainstream cultures, as well as religiosity, within each ethnic group. A total of 1,415 college students (67% Euro-American, 16% Hispanic, 17% Asian; 32% men, 68% women) completed questionnaires which assessed attitudes towards homosexuality, gender role traditionality, casual sex, and extramarital sex. In concordance with previous studies, Asians reported more conservative sexual attitudes than did their Hispanic and Euro-American peers. Hispanics reported sexual attitudes similar to that of Euro-Americans. For both Hispanic and Asians, higher acculturation predicted sexual attitudes similar to that of Euro-Americans. For Asian, Hispanic, and Euro-American women, there was a significant interaction between intrinsic religiosity and spirituality such that the relationship between conservativism of sexual attitudes and intrinsic religiosity was stronger at higher levels of spirituality. In Euro-Americans and Asians, intrinsic religiosity and religious fundamentalism strongly predicted conservative sexual attitudes; while still significant, these relationships were not as pronounced in the Hispanic sample, implying an ethnic-by-religious effect. Novel to this study, acculturation did not mediate the relationship between religiosity and sexual attitudes, indicating that ethnic differences in religiosity effects were distinct from acculturation.     

Sexual Motives, Gender, and Sexual Behavior

The roles of gender and the sexual motives of Love, Pleasure, Conformity, Recognition, Dominance, and Submission in numerous usual and unusual sexual behaviors were investigated. In a survey of 191 college undergraduates it was found that Love, Pleasure, Conformity, and Recognition motives, often in interaction with gender, were all important predictors of sexual behavior. Gender was the best predictor of initiating usual sexual behavior, whereas the Love motive was the best predictor of actually engaging in usual sexual behavior. Pleasure and Recognition in interaction with gender were the best predictors of engaging in unusual sexual behavior. None of the sexual motives predicted initiating unusual sexual behavior. Findings suggest that a variety of sexual motives may underlie sexual behavior.     

A Gender Discrepancy Analysis of Heterosexual Sexual Behaviors in Two University Samples

The current study aimed to (1) offer a large-scale enumeration of college students’ lifetime sexual behaviors and sexual behaviors at last event, and (2) apply a gender discrepancy lens to college students’ sexual behaviors in order to examine potential gender differences in heterosexual college students’ experiences. Nine-hundred and seventy college students between the ages of 18 and 27 from two large universities in the United States participated in the current study. Participants filled out a paper–pencil questionnaire during the last 30 min of class. Measures of lifetime sexual behaviors and engagement in behaviors at last sexual event were replicated from the National Survey of Sexual Health Behavior. Most college students engaged in some form of sexual behavior (manual, oral, vaginal-penile, anal). Men more frequently reported engaging in receptive sexual behaviors (e.g., receiving oral sex) where as women were more likely to engage in performative sexual behaviors (e.g., performing oral sex). At most recent sexual event, men were more likely than women to report being the sexual initiator. Findings highlight gender differences in sexual behavior and provide a foundation for social norms interventions. Holistic sexual health promotion for young adults includes acknowledging and discouraging sites of disparity in equity and pleasure. Therefore, college-level sexual health educators should pay attention to the potential pleasure gap between men and women in heterosexual encounters, and to see pleasure as an important part of sexual health that should be included in social norms campaigns.     

Acculturation and Sexual Function in Asian Women

Cultural effects on sexuality are pervasive and potentially of great clinical importance, but have not yet received sustained empirical attention. The purpose of this study was to explore the role of acculturation on sexual permissiveness and sexual function, with a particular focus on arousal in Asian women living in Canada. We also compared questionnaire responses between Asian and Euro-Canadian groups in hopes of investigating whether acculturation captured unique information not predicted by ethnic group affiliation. Euro-Canadian (n = 173) and Asian (n = 176) female university students completed a battery of questionnaires in private. Euro-Canadian women had significantly more sexual knowledge and experiences, more liberal attitudes, and higher rates of desire, arousal, sexual receptivity, and sexual pleasure. Anxiety from anticipated sexual activity was significantly higher in Asian women, but the groups did not differ significantly on relationship satisfaction or problems with sexual function. Acculturation to Western culture, as well as maintained affiliation with traditional Asian heritage, were both significantly and independently related to sexual attitudes above and beyond length of residency in Canada, and beyond ethnic group comparisons. Overall, these data suggest that measurement of acculturation may capture information about an individual's unique acculturation pattern that is not evident when focusing solely on ethnic group comparisons or length of residency, and that such findings may be important in facilitating the assessment, classification, and treatment of sexual difficulties in Asian women.     

Gender Nonconformity, Intelligence, and Sexual Orientation

The present study explored whether there were relationships among gender nonconformity, intelligence, and sexual orientation. A total of 106 heterosexual men, 115 heterosexual women, and 103 gay men completed measures of demographic variables, recalled childhood gender nonconformity (CGN), and the National Adult Reading Test (NART). NART error scores were used to estimate Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ) and Verbal IQ (VIQ) scores. Gay men had significantly fewer NART errors than heterosexual men and women (controlling for years of education). In heterosexual men, correlational analysis revealed significant associations between CGN, NART, and FSIQ scores (elevated boyhood femininity correlated with higher IQ scores). In heterosexual women, the direction of the correlations between CGN and all IQ scores was reversed (elevated girlhood femininity correlating with lower IQ scores). There were no significant correlations among these variables in gay men. These data may indicate a “sexuality-specific” effect on general cognitive ability but with limitations. They also support growing evidence that quantitative measures of sex-atypicality are useful in the study of trait sexual orientation.     

凉山州某县彝族村民偶遇性行为现状及其地理网络分析

目的了解凉山州某县彝族村民偶遇性行为现状及地理网络特征。方法采取问卷与定性调查相结合的方式对年龄在15～35岁,过去1年有性行为的彝族村民以及相关知情人士进行调查。数据分析包括χ2检验、t检验和Logistic回归分析。利用UCINET软件分析性网络并绘制图。结果调查对象以男性为主,累积和最近1年多性伴者分别占66.7%和22.2%。82.4%的调查对象发生过偶遇性行为。Logistic回归分析发现:男性、初次性行为年龄小更容易发生偶遇性行为。47.7%的调查对象听说过安全套,无人每次性行为都使用安全套。75%的调查对象在6个场景发生过偶遇性行为,其中赶场和参加婚礼最容易发生偶遇性行为。结论凉山州某县彝族村民偶遇性行为普遍存在,且无安全措施,偶遇性行为发生的地理网络明确,必须重视偶遇性行为在艾滋病传播中的作用并开展相应的行为干预。     

Environmental, Personal, and Behavioral Influences on BMI and Acculturation of Second Generation Hmong Children

This project investigated influences (environmental, personal, and behavioral) on body mass index (BMI) and acculturation of Hmong children born in the United States (US) using the social cognitive theory as the theoretical framework. Using formative information from 12 child focus groups (n = 68) and a review of the literature, a quantitative survey was developed and administered to Hmong children (n = 300) ≥ 9 ≤ 18 years-old. Heights, weights, and acculturation level were measured. B-US¹ were raised in the US and 9–13 years-old (n = 144) and B-US² were raised in the US and 14–18 years-old (n = 156). Approximately 50 % of children were classified as overweight/obese (BMI ≥ 85th percentile). Across age and gender sub-groups, questions from the environmental construct appeared to be the most predictive of variances in BMI percentiles (50–60 %). In contrast, acculturation scores were equally predicted by environmental, behavioral, and personal constructs for age and gender sub-groups. Sum acculturation score was significantly higher for B-US² compared to B-US¹, with B-US² being more acculturated in language use and thought, overall dietary acculturation, and foods eaten at lunch. The high prevalence of obesity in Hmong children suggests that future studies investigate factors influencing obesity to identify the most effective method to reduce/prevent this problem. In particular, acculturation level of the child should be assessed to determine changed dietary behavior and possible risk for obesity.     

Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being

Both a same-sex sexual orientation and gender nonconformity have been linked with poorer well-being; however, sexual orientation and gender nonconformity are also correlated. It is, therefore, critical to investigate their independent contributions to well-being. Based on survey responses of 230 female and 245 male high school seniors, the present study is one of the first to provide empirical data on this topic. Both childhood and adolescent gender nonconformity were negatively related to well-being. In the same analyses, neither sexual orientation nor biological sex was a significant predictor of well-being. These results suggest that gender-atypical traits may be more relevant for psychological health than a same-sex sexual orientation. Both environmental and biological influences may account for these findings.     

青少年性健康行为研究概况

目前全球人口中1/4以上是青少年。处于性活跃年龄的他们,道德观念、生活方式、交往范围和性行为等方面都发生着巨大的变化,生理需求、观念转变、经济状况和知识缺乏等因素使他们更容易发生不安全性行为。自20世纪70年代以来,青少年的不良性行为问题及其带来的相关问题日益突出,在全球已引起了强烈关注并进行了相关研究。对涵盖与青少年性健康有关的各项性行为的调查及研究情况进行分析概括。     

Ethnic Differences in Sexual Decisions and Sexual Behavior

Previous investigators have reported ethnic differences in the expression of sexual decision making and sexual behaviors in women. In a sample of women of low socioeconomic status between ages 18 and 45, we examined the influence of ethnicity and other variables (age, education, marital status, and comfort in discussing sex) on (i) who makes decisions on the timing and type of sex, (ii) whether a woman engages in vaginal, oral, and anal sex, (iii) the frequencies of each type of sex, and (iv) whether or not a woman has multiple partners. Multivariate analyses showed that, independent of other independent variables, ethnicity had little direct effect on most variables. The notable exception was that ethnicity influenced joint decision making regarding the timing and type of sexual activities for Hispanic but not for African American women. We conclude that ethnicity contributes to differences in sexual behaviors but that other variables are equally important.     

青少年性健康行为研究概况

目前全球人口中1/4以上是青少年.处于性活跃年龄的他们,道德观念、生活方式、交往范围和性行为等方面都发生着巨大的变化,生理需求、观念转变、经济状况和知识缺乏等因素使他们更容易发生不安全性行为.自20世纪70年代以来,青少年的不良性行为问题及其带来的相关问题日益突出,在全球已引起了强烈关注并进行了相关研究.对涵盖与青少年性健康有关的各项性行为的调查及研究情况进行分析概括.     

Ethnic Variations in Prevalence of High-Risk Sexual Behaviors Among Asian and Pacific Islander Adolescents in Hawaii

Objectives. We examined ethnic variations in high-risk sexual behaviors among Asian and Pacific Islander (API) adolescents in comparison with White adolescents.Methods. We obtained data from the 2003 Hawaii Youth Risk Behavior Survey on 4953 students in grades 9 through 12. We conducted χ² and logistic regression analyses on these data to examine the prevalence of high-risk sexual behaviors among Japanese, Filipino, Native Hawaiian, and White adolescents.Results. We found significant ethnic variation in prevalence of high-risk sexual behaviors among API adolescents. Relative to White adolescents, Native Hawaiian adolescents were most likely to engage in lifetime sexual intercourse, recent sexual intercourse, and sexual initiation before age 13 years; Japanese adolescents were least likely to engage in these behaviors. Filipino adolescents were least likely to use substances before last sexual intercourse and condoms during last sexual intercourse.Conclusions. Our findings suggest divergent patterns of risk among API ethnic groups, underscoring the heterogeneity of API subgroups and emphasizing the need for health disparities research on disaggregated API ethnic groups. The findings of such research should be used to design ethnically relevant interventions aimed at mitigating the negative health consequences of high-risk sexual behaviors.High-risk sexual behaviors among adolescents are a significant public health concern in the United States. These behaviors account for increasing rates of premature morbidity and mortality by contributing to risk of unintended teen pregnancy, HIV/AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Complications associated with adolescents'' sexual risk behaviors may take years to manifest and may seriously compromise adolescents'' health and quality of life in adulthood.The Asian and Pacific Islander (API) adolescent population appears to be at heightened risk for the negative consequences of high-risk sexual behaviors. Some have described HIV/AIDS among the soaring API population worldwide as a global pandemic.¹ Although prevalence of STDs, HIV/AIDS, and pregnancy has been lower among API adolescents than among adolescents from other ethnic groups, it is suspected that Asians and Pacific Islanders underreport and misreport STD and HIV infection because of cultural norms that look unfavorably upon sexual risk behaviors.^1,2 For example, the relatively low prevalence of STDs among API adolescents³ may be partially caused by cultural norms that discourage API youths from seeking immediate treatment for STDs, thereby placing them at even greater risk for negative health consequences of STDs. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has reported that API adolescents and adults constitute the largest proportion of individuals by ethnicity who are tested at HIV testing sites where anonymity is preserved.¹ Because anonymous HIV testing data are not included in national HIV surveillance reports, the number of Asians and Pacific Islanders reported to be living with HIV infection is likely underestimated. Also, although reported rates of HIV/AIDS among API adolescents are low, certain sexual risk behaviors that contribute to HIV/AIDS risk are as prevalent among API adolescents as they are among adolescents from other ethnic groups.⁴Although Asians and Pacific Islanders comprise dozens of racial/ethnic groups and speak nearly 500 languages and dialects,¹ national surveys and studies typically categorize all Asians and Pacific Islanders as an aggregate racial group. The evidence suggests important ethnic-group differences among API adolescents,⁵ but these differences are obscured in national studies that typically focus on White, African American, and Hispanic populations while combining all API groups into 1 category; in addition, few studies have been published on ethnically disaggregated API data. Consequently, there is a lack of data on prevalence of sexual risk behaviors among API subgroups. We believe that API subgroups differ in their sexual-risk profiles as a result of variations in underlying cultural and socioeconomic factors that may affect sexual risk behaviors. Thus, to learn more about the sexual-risk profiles of API subgroups, we examined variations in high-risk sexual behaviors among adolescents from 3 API ethnic subgroups that are populous in Hawaii: Japanese, Filipinos, and Native Hawaiians.     

Sexual Values and Risky Sexual Behaviors Among Latino Youths

CONTEXT: Understanding Latino youths' sexual values is key to informing HIV prevention efforts. Few studies have examined associations between culturally based sexual values and behaviors among Latinos.
METHODS: A sample of 839 sexually active Latinos aged 16–22 residing in San Francisco were interviewed in 2003–2006. Multiple regression and multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine associations between sexual values and behaviors, while adjusting for language use (a proxy for acculturation) and other covariates.
RESULTS: The importance attached to female virginity was negatively associated with the number of sexual partners women had had in their lifetime (odds ratio, 0.8) and in the past year (0.9), and was positively associated with women's nonuse of condoms, rather than consistent use, during the first month of their current relationships (1.8). For men, the importance of satisfying sexual needs increased with the numbers of lifetime and recent sexual partners (1.4 and 1.1, respectively), and with inconsistent condom use in the first month of their relationships (1.9). Comfort with sexual communication was positively associated with inconsistent use or nonuse of condoms in the last month of both men's and women's current relationships (2.0–2.2). For women, considering satisfaction of sexual needs important was associated with more sexual partners only among those who attached little value to female virginity.
CONCLUSIONS: It is important to integrate themes of virginity and sexual desire into intervention curricula so youth can better understand how these sexual norms influence their developing sexual identities and behaviors.     

Risky Sexual Behaviors Among Hispanic Young Adults In South Florida: Nativity,Age at Immigration And Gender Differences

CONTEXT: U.S. Hispanics are disadvantaged compared with whites in regard to sexual health, particularly early sexual initiation and contraceptive use. It is unclear whether differences in nativity and immigration are associated with risky sexual behaviors. METHODS: Data collected between 1998 and 2000 from a community sample in South Florida were analyzed to examine sexual behaviors among 709 Hispanic individuals aged 18–23. Associations between nativity and age at immigration and sexual behaviors were assessed separately by gender using chi‐square tests and analyses of covariance. RESULTS: Smaller proportions of sexually experienced women who had immigrated to the United States before age six than of similar U.S.‐born women reported having had vaginal sex (83% vs. 91%) and oral sex (71% vs. 86%) in the past year. Compared with U.S.‐born women, those who had immigrated at age six or older reported lower levels of oral sex (66% vs. 86% of those with sexual experience) and drug use in conjunction with sex in the past year (mean score, 1.2 vs. 1.6 on a scale of 1–5), and a lower average lifetime number of sexual partners (2.0 vs. 3.7 in the sample overall). Immigrant men were no less likely than U.S.‐born men to engage in risky sexual behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Given the diversity of nativity and immigration histories among Hispanics in the United States, it is important that research examine both factors. An understanding of their joint association with sexual activity, plus the conditioning effects of gender, could help professionals to develop effective education and prevention programs for young people who are at risk for engaging in potentially dangerous sexual behavior.     

Gender Differences in Acculturation, Stress, and Salivary Cortisol Response Among Former Soviet Immigrants

Post-immigration adaptation is characterized by chronic and acute acculturative stressors. Salivary cortisol is a commonly used hormonal marker of stress, but few studies have investigated its use as an indicator of acculturative stress and adjustment in immigrants. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships among predictors of adjustment (environmental and language mastery), self-reported stress outcomes (depressive symptoms, perceived stress, alienation), and salivary cortisol response in immigrants from the former Soviet Union. The sample included 137 married men and women aged 42–80 who lived in the U.S. for 1–13 years. Results indicated that while men and women had similar values for cortisol response, relationships among adjustment measures, stress outcomes, and cortisol differed by gender. Among men, environmental mastery significantly reduced depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and cortisol response. Among women, environmental mastery also reduced depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and alienation, but language mastery increased cortisol response and decreased alienation.