Color Doppler sonography: its real role in the evaluation of children with highly suspected testicular torsion

The goal of this study was to assess the reliability of color Doppler imaging in boys who presented with acute scrotal pain and borderline clinical findings. The second purpose of the study was to evaluate the potential change in diagnostic accuracy as a result of employing radiological staff with varying levels of experience. Thirty-eight consecutive patients with highly suspected testicular torsion were enrolled in this prospective study. Clinical examination was followed by color Doppler US (7.5-MHz transducer). The staff of radiologists included four residents and three experienced radiologists. All patients underwent surgical exploration. All original reports of residents were reviewed by experienced radiologists and sensitivity with specificity were determined and compared. Original interpretations of color Doppler imaging yielded sensitivity of 77.8% and specificity of 85%, which changed after review to 88.9 and 90%, respectively. Clinical assessment was accurate only in 47.4%. Agreement between original and retrospective color Doppler diagnosis was obtained in 20 of 23 (86.9%) reviewed cases. Color Doppler US may prevent unnecessary surgery in the cases with conclusive normal and increased blood flow. In all other situations scrotal exploration should be performed.     

A systematic review on the utility of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of testicular torsion in acute scrotum patients

IntroductionUltrasound is a valuable tool in establishing the cause of acute scrotum pain. However, its role in testicular torsion (TT) detection remains controversial. This review aims integrate pre-existing data to assess the value of B-mode and colour Doppler ultrasound (CDS) features combined in the detection of TT in acute scrotum pain patients of all ages.MethodsA search through electronic databases, grey literature and hand searching using specific search terms was conducted to identify relevant literature. Search results were subjected to a three-step selection process to ensure the inclusion criteria of this review were met. Statistical data pertaining to the accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of the B-mode, CDS and combined B-mode CDS features were extracted. These results subsequently underwent a narrative analysis.ResultsFive studies met the inclusion criteria. A variety of B-mode features were identified. Most studies showed that reliance on CDS alone can be prone to false-negative results. The combination of B-mode and CDS features were found to increase the overall sensitivity of ultrasound towards TT (up to 100% in 3 studies). All studies recommended correlation with clinical examination findings. Several limitations in methodology of the included studies were noted: small sample populations and lack of information on the experience of ultrasound practitioners. This highlighted the need for a primary study with a larger sample population to validate the findings of this review.ConclusionThe combination of B-mode and CDS ultrasound is a useful and reliable triage tool in the detection of TT, particularly in equivocal or low suspicion cases but its findings should always be adjunct with clinical examination. Nevertheless, it is noted that appropriate service level agreements, pathways, and training are key factors in ensuring effectiveness of the process.Implications for practiceDedicated training and appropriate departmental protocol are key in ensuring accurate diagnosis across all levels of practice.     

彩色多普勒超声在小儿睾丸扭转诊断中的价值

目的探讨彩色多普勒超声对小儿睾丸扭转的诊断价值。方法对44例临床疑诊睾丸扭转男孩(年龄1岁～15岁,平均8岁)首先用二维超声显示双侧睾丸附睾形态、结构及内部回声,再用彩色多普勒观察血流情况,所有病例经手术证实。结果44例中的41例睾丸扭转患者患侧睾丸血流减少或消失。结论彩色多普勒诊断睾丸扭转有很高的特异性,简便无创,应作为诊断睾丸扭转的首选方法。     

Imaging of testicular torsion and epididymitis/orchitis: Diagnosis and pitfalls

In this paper, we review the clinical and imaging features of the two most common causes of the acute scrotum, testicular torsion and epididymitis/orchitis. Pertinent anatomy, imaging study techniques and pitfalls in diagnosis are discussed.     

The pattern of radionuclide scrotal scan in torsion of testicular appendages

The aim of this study was to define the radionuclide scrotal imaging (RSI) pattern in cases of torsion of testicular appendages and to correlate it with the duration of symptoms. Two hundred and seventeen patients with acute scrotal pain were evaluated prospectively during the past 13 years. Two groups of patients were defined according to the interval between the onset of symptoms and the performance of RSI: group A comprised patients in whom RSI was performed within 5 h after the onset of symptoms, while group B comprised patients in whom RSI was performed between 5 and 24 h after the onset of symptoms. An SPX-4 Elscint or an Apex 405 gamma camera with a parallel hole or converging collimator was used. Between 5 and 15 mCi of technetium-99m pertechnetate was injected as a bolus intravenously. The radionuclide angiogram consisted of six to eight consecutive 5-s frames. The scrotal static scan was obtained immediately following the radionuclide angiogram. The hot dot sign, which is a small spot of increased tracer perfusion and uptake on RSI, was not present during the first hours after the onset of symptoms. Therefore, RSI is inaccurate and is not indicated for the diagnosis of torsion of testicular appendages of less than 4–5 h duration. The hot dot sign was, however, demonstrated on the RSI in 45% of the patients with scrotal pain lasting between 5 and 24 h. The overall sensitivity and accuracy of RSI in diagnosing torsion of testicular appendages in this group of patients were 68% and 79%, respectively. In all the patients with a positive hot dot sign, torsion of testicular appendages was found at exploration (specificity 100%). Therefore, the hot dot sign was found to be pathognomonic of torsion of testicular appendages.     

The role of contrast enhanced ultrasound in the differential diagnosis of segmental testicular infarction

A 43-year-old male presented to the emergency department with acute left testicular pain. Physical exam showed a tender left testicle and epididymis with mild swelling. Doppler and contrast enhanced ultrasound revealed a heterogeneous, avascular lesion with hyper vascularized surrounding. Follow-up contrast enhanced ultrasound performed a few days later showed persistence of the sparsely vascularized lesion with more hypoechoic echo structure.Despite the tumor markers being negative, a necrotic tumor could not be ruled out and a left orchiectomy was performed. Pathology report described an extensive segmental testicular infarction with no evidence of malignant tissue.We present the ultrasound and pathology findings, differential diagnostic pearls and clinical perspective of segmental testicular infarction.     

Prenatal testicular torsion: diagnosis and natural course. An ultrasonographic study

The aim of this study was to demonstrate the ultrasonographic features of prenatal torsion of the testis at presentation and during follow-up, with histological correlation post-orchidectomy. Between January 1985 and December 1999, 13 neonates with antenatal torsion of the testis were examined postnatally, at presentation and during follow-up, with high-resolution ultrasonography, including colour Doppler ultrasonography. Bilateral testis volume was evaluated [length×width×depth×(/6)]. Ultrasonographic findings were correlated with histological findings (n=8) and findings at surgery. Moreover, in 1 patient the affected testis was postoperatively examined with ultrasonography in vitro. These findings were correlated with preoperative ultrasonography and corresponding histological slices. All patients (n=13) presented with a painless congenital scrotal mass. On the affected side no flow was found with colour Doppler ultrasonography. Testis volume on the affected and normal side showed mean values of 2.1 and 0.5 cc, respectively. On ultrasonography all patients showed scrotal swelling and a heterogeneous testis with hypoechoic central areas (necrosis). The tunica albuginea was thickened in all patients, with focal (n=2) or rim-like (n=11) hyperechoic reflections (calcifications) at the transitional zone between testis and tunica albuginea. In 9 patients follow-up ultrasonography showed progressive testis atrophy on the affected side. In 10 patients a contralateral hydrocele was found. Prenatal torsion shows a characteristic ultrasonographic pattern. In newborns with a scrotal mass, these ultrasonographic findings should suggest this diagnosis and delay in immediate surgery and/or oncological work-up may be appropriate.     

彩色多普勒超声对睾丸扭转的诊断及临床意义

目的探讨彩色多普勒超声对睾丸扭转的诊断及临床意义。方法总结分析我院15例经手术证实的睾丸扭转患者彩色多普勒超声表现及临床治疗结果。结果睾丸扭转声像图表现与扭转时间及扭转程度密切相关,早期睾丸扭转的敏感指标是患侧睾丸血流减少伴阻力指数增高,手术复位成功率高。患侧睾丸血流消失是睾丸扭转的可靠性指标。结论彩色多普勒超声能准确判断睾丸扭转程度,对临床治疗具有指导意义,是睾丸扭转的首选检查方法。     

彩色多普勒超声在睾丸扭转诊断中的作用

目的探讨彩色多普勒超声诊断睾丸扭转的临床意义。方法回顾分析15例经手术病理证实的睾丸扭转患者的术前彩色多普勒超声表现,并与手术病理对比分析。结果15例患者中,13例的彩色多普勒超声显示血流消失或明显减少提示睾丸扭转,有2例初次超声检查误诊,1例误诊为睾丸炎,另1例误诊为正常。后经复查超声,诊断为睾丸扭转。结论彩色多普勒超声能准确地显示睾丸内血供情况,判断睾丸缺血的不同阶段,因而它是诊断睾丸扭转首选的、可靠的检查方法。     

Segmental testicular infarct with an associated testicular artery aneurysm: Case report of a rare clinical entity

Segmental testicular infarct is a rare clinical entity and can be a diagnostic challenge. Although cases are often idiopathic, underlying etiologies can include testicular torsion, epididymo-orchitis, trauma, vasculitis, and hypercoagulable states. Once suspected, an underlying testicular neoplasm should be excluded. We present a case of a 43-year-old male who developed acute onset left sided scrotal pain. A diagnostic scrotal ultrasound showed a focal, heterogeneous region in left testicle with absent focal Doppler signal, concerning for a segmental testicular infarction. There was no history of trauma, urinary symptoms, sexually transmitted diseases, or constitutional symptoms. Work up for associated underlying etiologies was negative. A computed tomography angiogram scan of the abdomen and pelvis revealed an incidental left testicular artery aneurysm. The patient''s consulting multidisciplinary care teams included urology and vascular surgery. Urology deemed surgical intervention inappropriate for the segmental testicular infarct, and vascular surgery elected not to intervene on the testicular artery aneurysm due to risk of completing testicular infarct and damaging blood supply to the testis. The patient was discharged after achieving adequate pain control, and completion of inpatient work up. No underlying malignancy was diagnosed on follow up, and pain symptoms resolved. To the authors’ knowledge, no literature exists describing the concurrent incidence of a segmental testicular infarct and an ipsilateral testicular artery aneurysm. In this report, we aim to further describe both diagnoses, and explore the association between the 2 entities.     

Differential diagnosis of scrotal masses by ultrasound

Ultrasound is the mainstay for imaging of the scrotum. It is used primarily for determining the location and nature of palpable lesions and to demonstrate nonpalpable lesions. Scrotal US is characterized by high sensitivity in the detection of intrascrotal abnormalities and is a very good mode for differentiating testicular from paratesticular lesions. However, scrotal US is limited in determining whether a focal testicular lesion is benign or malignant. The limitations of gray-scale US in the assessment of an acute scrotum and in particular of testicular torsion have now been overcome by color-coded duplex sonography and power Doppler.     

Perforation of multiple gastric duplication cysts: diagnosis by sonography

A case of perforation of multiple gastric duplication cysts is presented. The rarity of this case is based on its multiplicity, its small size, its perforation into peritoneal cavity, as well as on the detection of tiny foci of ectopic pancreatic tissue at the site of perforation. The sonographic appearance and the clinical manifestations are discussed. Received: 5 August 1998; Revision received: 1 December 1998; Accepted: 5 March 1999     

高频超声对睾丸微石症与睾丸肿瘤间的关系初步探讨

目的探讨睾丸微石症与睾丸肿瘤的关系。方法回顾分析2003年1月～2011年12月我院门诊及住院12956例患者的阴囊超声检查资料。参考国外的标准对睾丸微石症(TM)进行分级,将其分为局限型TM(LTM)和典型的TM(CTM),其中又将CTM分为Ⅰ级、Ⅱ级和Ⅲ级。结果①所有患者中共检出睾丸微石症277例,检出率2.14%(277/12956);单侧病变34例(占12.3%),双侧病变243例(87.7%)。LTM有62例(22.4%),CTM型中Ⅰ级92例(33.2%),Ⅱ级68例(24.5%),Ⅲ级55例(19.9%);②检出睾丸肿瘤52例,检出率0.40%(52/12956)。277例睾丸微石症患者中合并睾丸肿瘤19例,发生率6.9%(19/277),而在12679例无睾丸微石症者中仅33例合并睾丸肿瘤,发生率0.3%(33/12679),睾丸微石症患者的睾丸肿瘤发生率明星高于无微石症者(P<0.01)。但不同级别睾丸微石症的睾丸肿瘤发生率差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论睾丸微石症与睾丸肿瘤的发生具有一定的相关性,但不同级别睾丸微石症的睾丸肿瘤发生率无差异。     

Prenatal testicular torsion: sonographic appearance in the newborn infant

The prenatal diagnosis of spermatic cord torsion is often really difficult and the diagnosis is usually retrospective. Herein, we report a case of a male newborn baby who presented at delivery with an enlarged, swollen and tender scrotum. US showed an enlarged right testis, with dishomogeneous texture, fluid collection between the testis and the tunica vaginalis and large hydrocele. Differential diagnosis included hydrocele complicated by infection or hemorrhage, testicular tumor or postnatal testicular torsion. Color and power Doppler did not reveal any flow signal, and the diagnosis of antenatal torsion with initial necrosis was made. The role of color Doppler US is emphasized in directing the patient to emergency surgical exploration, when testicular salvage may be possible. Delayed surgical treatment can be proposed, when the diagnosis of antenatal torsion has a high degree of certainty. However, the Doppler examination of a newborn baby's testis is a very difficult challenge even for an experienced radiologist. Electronic Publication     

MR imaging of testicular torsion: features of testicular hemorrhagic necrosis and clinical outcomes

PURPOSE: To determine whether emergency subtraction dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging (DCE-MRI) in combination with T2- and T2*-weighted imaging of the testis is useful in the evaluation of patients with testicular torsion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fourteen patients with surgically proven testicular torsion were examined using preoperative emergency MRI, including T2-weighted, T2*-weighted, and DCE-MRI. The affected testis was examined histologically in eight patients who underwent orchiectomy, and by postoperative follow-up MRI in six patients who underwent orchiopexy. The diagnostic criteria for testicular torsion and detection of hemorrhagic necrosis in the affected testis in emergency MRI were decreased or no perfusion in DCE-MRI and a spotty and/or streaky pattern of low or very low signal intensity in T2- and T2*-weighted images. The intraoperative findings and clinical outcomes were also compared. RESULTS: The histological findings and follow-up MR images revealed total or partial necrosis of the affected testis in 10 of the 14 patients. In the diagnosis of complete torsion, the sensitivities were 100% for DCE-MRI and 75% for T2- and T2*-weighted imaging. In the detection of testicular necrosis, T2- and T2*-weighted imaging showed the highest accuracy (100%), followed by 12-hour time from onset (93%), intraoperative findings (79%), and DCE-MRI (71%). CONCLUSION: Emergency MRI can help diagnose testicular torsion and detect testicular necrosis when DCE-MRI is used in combination with T2- and T2*-weighted images.     

Use of strain sonoelastography in differentiation of focal testicular lesions

Purpose

We aimed to assess potential role of strain sonoelastography in diagnosing focal testicular lesions.

动态增强MRI评价缺血睾丸活力演变的实验研究

目的 探讨MR动态增强扫描(DCE-MRI)在评价缺血睾丸活力演变中的价值.方法 选取30只健康雄性新西兰大白兔,采用随机数字表法分为6组,每组5只.①组为正常对照组,②组为假手术组,③、④、⑤、⑥组分别制作左侧睾丸缺血3 h、6 h、12 h和24 h模型,分别行DCE-MRI并观察睾丸信号变化.分析双侧睾丸时间-信号强度曲线(TIC)分型,并测量30 s信号强化率(SER30)、75 s信号强化率(SER75)、120 s信号强化率(SER120)和最大信号强化率(MSER).组内左右睾丸SER的比较采用两个样本分布比较的Kolmogorov-Smirnov检验.结果 ①组与②组左右侧睾丸动态增强早期明显强化,③、④、⑤、⑥组随缺血时间延长,动态强化逐渐减低;左侧睾丸TIC①组3个为Ⅰ型,2个为Ⅱa型;②组5个均为Ⅰ型;③组2个Ⅰ型,3个为Ⅱb型;④组2个为Ⅰ型,3个为Ⅱb型;⑤组5个均为Ⅱb型;⑥组5个均为Ⅲ型.右侧睾丸除⑥组2个为Ⅱa型,其余各组均为Ⅰ型.③、④、⑤、⑥组左侧SER75的中位数分别为0.084%、0.076%、0.164%和0.065%,右侧分别为0.255%、0.410%、0.586%和0.302%,差异均有统计学意义(P值均＜0.05).③、⑤、⑥组左侧SER120分别为0.221%、0.158%和0.059%,右侧分别为0.405%、0.522%和0.207%,差异均有统计学意义(P值均＜0.05).③、⑤、⑥组左侧MSER分别为0.217%、0.164%和0.072%,右侧分别为0.405%、0.586%和0.302%,差异均有统计学意义(P值均＜0.05).结论 动态增强MRI能够对睾丸不全扭转做出正确判断,对于临床诊断早期不全性睾丸扭转具有潜在应用价值.     

小儿睾丸小结石病的超声诊断

目的探讨小儿睾丸小结石病的超声诊断。方法分析11例小儿(年龄1岁～10岁)睾丸小结石病的彩色多普勒超声表现。结果睾丸微小结石症声像图具有特征性:睾丸实质内可见细小、均匀散在分布的点状强回声,无声影。结论高频超声能准确判断及诊断睾丸微小结石症,对于确诊本病的患儿,应定期随访。     

Incidental findings on sonography of the breast: clinical significance and diagnostic workup.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine how often physician-performed high-resolution sonography can detect nonpalpable breast lesions not revealed by mammography. A sonographic classification scheme was tested for its accuracy in predicting malignancy of incidentally detected breast lesions. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Six thousand one hundred thirteen asymptomatic women with breast density grades 2-4 and 687 patients with palpable or mammographically detected breast masses underwent sonography as an adjunct to mammography. All sonographically detected, clinically and mammographically occult breast lesions that were not simple cysts were prospectively classified into benign, indeterminate, or malignant categories. Diagnoses were confirmed by sonographically guided fine-needle aspiration or core needle biopsy. RESULTS: In 6113 asymptomatic women, 23 malignancies in 21 patients were detected with sonography only (prevalence, 0.31%). Five additional malignant lesions were found in patients with a malignant (n = 3) or a benign (n = 2) palpable or mammographically detected index lesion. The mean size of invasive malignancies detected only by sonography was 9.1 mm, which was not significantly different from the mean size of invasive cancers detected by mammography (p = .07). The sensitivity of the prospective sonographic classification for malignancy was 100%, and the specificity was 33.5%. CONCLUSION: The use of high-resolution sonography as an adjunct to mammography in women with dense breasts may lead to detection of a significant number of otherwise occult malignancies that are no different in size from nonpalpable mammographically detected lesions. Prospective classification of these lesions based on sonographic characteristics results in a significant reduction in number of unnecessary biopsies performed.     

Acute knee trauma: role of ultrasound

The purpose of this study was to determine the diagnostic accuracy of high spatial resolution ultrasonography (US) in the detection of lipohemarthrosis of the knee and to evaluate this sign as criteria of intra-articular fracture. Forty-eight patients with clinical suspicion of knee fracture were prospectively examined by conventional radiography, sonography examination and computed tomography (CT) within 48 h after trauma in order to depict direct (fracture line) and indirect (lipohemarthrosis) signs of intra-articular fracture. Lipohemarthrosis was defined as a multi-layered collection in the subquadricipital recess. CT was considered as the gold standard for both direct and indirect fracture criteria. CT imaging showed direct signs of intra-articular fracture in 31 patients (65%). Among these patients, 30 (97%) had a lipohemarthrosis. Conventional radiographs showed intra-articular fracture in 26 patients (54%). Among these, 18 (69%) had a lipohemarthrosis. Sonographic examinations could not depict any direct sign of intra-articular fracture but showed a lipohemarthrosis in 29 (93%) of patients with proven fracture via CT. This allowed the depiction of four out of five occult knee fractures. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value of sonography for the diagnosis of lipohemarthrosis was 97, 100, 100 and 94%, respectively, compared with 55, 100, 100 and 55% with conventional radiographs. Using lipohemarthrosis as criterion of fracture, the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of sonography for early detection of intra-articular knee fractures was 94, 94, 97 and 89%, respectively, compared with 84, 88, 93 and 75% with conventional radiographs. We concluded that, by showing lipohemarthrosis in the subquadricipital recess, high-resolution sonography is a reliable and accurate technique for the evaluation of intra-articular knee fractures.