慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压(CTEPH)是一种继发性肺动脉高压，它有自身的病因及发病机制，因而是可治疗的。针对其肺动脉高压及右心衰竭的表现，可以采取药物治疗以缓解症状；针对肺动脉内的残留机化血栓，可采取肺血栓动脉内膜切除术及球囊肺血管成形术；而且肺移植亦可用于该病的治疗。有资料显示，CTEPH发病率及死亡率均高。本文就流行病学、发病机制、诊断及治疗等进行综述。     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压诊疗进展

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压（chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension,CTEPH）由肺动脉血栓栓塞后不完全再通和血管重构而形成,在未接受治疗情况下中位生存期仅不到3年,预后差且极易漏诊或误诊。本文就CTEPH的最新诊疗进展作以综述。     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压的诊疗进展

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压(chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension,CTEPH),属于肺动脉高压分型的第四大类,是目前唯一可能治愈的肺动脉高压,不干预则远期预后不佳,故明确诊断和积极治疗非常重要。对于CTEPH的诊断,肺通气灌注显像较CT肺动脉造影有更高的敏感性。CTEPH的预后与其治疗决策密切相关:所有患者都需要终身抗凝,利奥西呱是目前唯一获批用于CTEPH治疗的靶向药物。能否手术治疗取决于CTEPH的血栓机化部位:对于血栓栓塞在肺动脉近端,可行肺动脉内皮剥脱,其治愈率高,术后恢复以及长期预后往往较为理想;如果病变部位在中段,可以尝试进行肺动脉球囊扩张,球囊扩张往往需要分次逐步进行,扩张后患者活动耐量有显著提升,此外球囊扩张也用于如外科内皮剥脱后残余肺动脉高压或肺动脉高压复发;如果病变部位在肺血管末端,则只能选择药物保守治疗。多种治疗手段联合治疗或为未来CTEPH治疗的发展方向。     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压的处理

肺动脉血栓内膜切除术能使大部分慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压患者术后血液动力学和活动耐量恢复正常,部分达到治愈,而成为治疗的首选.靶向药物治疗仅用于谨慎选择的少数不能手术或术后残留肺动脉高压的患者.     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压:构建动物模型的研究进展

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压(CTEPH)被认为是急性肺血栓栓塞症的一种长期并发症,然而,研究表明,部分确诊为CTEPH的患者并无症状性肺血栓栓塞的既往病史,提示肺血栓栓塞可能并不是CTEPH的唯一病因.尽管近年来对肺动脉高压的研究取得了广泛的进展,但由于缺乏对CTEPH病理生理学的相关研究,此类患者的综合治疗仍面临许多挑...     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压的介入治疗

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压（CTEPH）的介入治疗,即球囊肺动脉扩张成形术（BPA）,经历了曲折的发展历史,技术经过改良后得到了世界范围内的推广,在指南中也逐渐受到了重视。BPA的疗效经过临床应用和近期一些高质量的研究证实,但其相关的出血并发症的发生率仍然较高,需要进一步改善。包括BPA技术、内科靶向药物和外科手术治疗等多种方法的综合运用是将来CTEPH治疗的发展趋势。     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压危险因素研究进展

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压(chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, CTEPH)主要是急性肺血栓栓塞(acute pulmonary thromboembolism, APTE)患者的远期严重并发症。目前CTEPH患者的早期诊断具有挑战性,漏误诊和延迟诊断在临床常见,长期病程可因持续或进行性血流动力学和功能损害而复杂化,造成严重的医疗、社会和经济后果。本文回顾目前有关CTEPH危险因素的文献,从患者特异性因素、APTE特征相关因素和APTE治疗相关因素角度进行总结,帮助临床医师快速识别APTE后CTEPH的高危人群进行早期筛查诊断并及时干预,以降低CTEPH发生率,推动CTEPH防治管理工作的发展。     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压小鼠模型建立初探

目的 探讨建立操作简便、耗资低廉、实用并能更客观模拟临床慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压(chronic thromboembolism pulmonary hypertension,CTEPH)的病理生理过程的小鼠模型.方法 雄性C57BL/6J小鼠56只,随机分为4组,即正常组(n=14)、假手术组(n=11)、模型组(n2=22)和氨甲环酸(tranexamic acid,AMCA)药物组(n=9).皮下注射戊巴比妥钠麻醉模型组和假手术组小鼠,暴露其左侧的颈外静脉,模型组注入自体血栓栓子,栓子则会顺血液循环栓塞肺动脉,从而造成急性肺栓塞.假手术组以生理盐水代替自体血栓栓子注入.AMCA药物组仅腹腔注射药物.正常组小鼠不进行任何处理.首次注栓1、2、3周后重复上述麻醉和注栓实验步骤,左、右颈外静脉交替使用.第6周测量各组小鼠右心室收缩压(right ventricular systolic pressure,RVSP),计算右心室肥大指数(right ventricular hypertrophy index,RVHI),并取肺组织进行后续病理学实验观察.病理组织学检查观察肺表面以及肺内的一系列病理变化,通过HE染色观察肺组织和肺血管结构的变化来判断造模成功与否.结果 与正常组和假手术组相比,模型组小鼠RVSP明显升高[(19.96±0.57) mmHgvs (17.18±1.17) mmHg,(16.73±0.61) mmHg,P＜0.05或P＜0.01)].与正常组、假手术组及AMCA药物组相比,模型组小鼠RVHI明显增加(29.60％±1.69％ vs19.55％±1.16％,19.80％±1.09％,18.07％±o.61％,P值均＜0.001).模型组小鼠肺动脉均有形态学变化,其中以远端细小动脉改变最为突出,主要表现为血管中膜平滑肌层增厚,平滑肌细胞增生,管腔明显缩小,部分管腔近乎闭合;肺中可见肺间质增厚,炎性细胞浸润明显,部分远端肺动脉中发现有大量红细胞聚集,可能是由于继发血栓的形成;栓塞较多部位可见肺泡融合或膨胀不全,肺泡壁充血、水肿.假手术组及AMCA药物组小鼠未见明显血栓栓塞,肺泡结构完整,肺泡及肺泡间隔内未见出血渗出和炎性细胞浸润,与正常组相比无明显改变.结论 用自体血栓栓子反复多次输注可成功诱导小鼠CTEPH形成,用该方法构建模型有一定的科研价值和可行性.     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压的介入治疗及策略

<正>慢性血栓栓塞性肺高血压(chronic thromboembolic pulmonaryhypertension,CTEPH)是未溶解的血栓发生机化、内膜纤维性增生,近端肺血管腔狭窄甚至闭塞、远端肺血管重构,引起肺动脉压力及肺血管阻力进行性升高,右心负荷逐渐增加,最终导致右心衰竭甚至死亡的一组病理生理学复杂的临床综合征^[1]。其主要临床表现为呼吸困难、乏力、活动耐力减低。依照我国2021年肺高血压指南的临床分类,CTEPH属于第四类肺动脉阻塞性疾病导致的肺高血压;按照血流动力学分类,CTEPH属于毛细血管前性肺动脉高压。     

Update on chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension

Chronic, unresolved thromboemboli are an important cause of pulmonary hypertension (PH) with specific treatment strategies differing from other types of PH. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) is classified as group 4 PH by the World Health Organization. It is a rare, but underdiagnosed, complication of acute pulmonary embolism that does not resolve and results in occlusion of large pulmonary arteries with a fibro-thrombotic material. The etiology of CTEPH remains uncertain, and it is unknown why certain patients with acute pulmonary embolism develop this disorder. The evaluation for CTEPH is an important part of the evaluation for PH in general, and it is crucial not to overlook this diagnosis, as it is the only form of PH that is potentially curable. Patients diagnosed with CTEPH should be referred to an expert center for consideration of pulmonary endarterectomy, and surgical removal of the chronic thromboembolic material. Not all patients with CTEPH are surgical candidates, however, and there are emerging treatments—medical therapy and balloon pulmonary angioplasty—that have shown benefit in this patient population. Without treatment, CTEPH can lead to progressive pulmonary vascular obstruction, right heart failure, and death. Thus, it is important for clinicians to recognize this subtype of PH. In this review, we provide an overview of current understanding of the pathogenesis of CTEPH and highlight recommendations and recent advances in the evaluation and treatment of CTEPH.     

Recent progress in the diagnosis and management of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension

Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) is a form of pulmonary hypertension caused by non-resolving thromboembolisms of the pulmonary arteries. In Japan, in contrast to Western countries, CTEPH is more prevalent in women. A Japanese multicenter study reported that a form of CTEPH unrelated to deep vein thrombosis is associated with HLA-B?5201, suggesting that this form of CTEPH may be associated with vasculopathy. CTEPH can be cured by pulmonary endarterectomy, provided that the thrombi are surgically accessible; thus, early diagnosis is important, and all patients with exertional dyspnea should be evaluated for pulmonary hypertension. Ventilation/perfusion scans provide an excellent non-invasive means to distinguish CTEPH from pulmonary arterial hypertension. Similarly, computed tomographic pulmonary angiograms allow for the detection of thrombi and evaluation of pulmonary hemodynamics in a minimally invasive manner. Importantly, the absence of subpleural perfusion on pulmonary angiograms can suggest the presence of small vessel disease. Small vessel disease might be involved in the pathogenesis of CTEPH, and its detection is essential in preventing operative death. Although no modern therapies for pulmonary arterial hypertension have been approved for treatment of CTEPH, a recent randomized control trial of riociguat in patients with CTEPH demonstrated that riociguat significantly improved 6-min walking distance. Further investigations into treatments that target endothelial dysfunction and hyperproliferative CTEPH cells are needed. Recently, balloon pulmonary angioplasty has emerged as a promising treatment modality in Japan. A specialized medical team, including at least one expert surgeon, should make decisions regarding patients' candidacy for pulmonary endarterectomy and/or balloon pulmonary angioplasty.     

Prospective cardiopulmonary screening program to detect chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension in patients after acute pulmonary embolism

Background

Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after pulmonary embolism is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Understanding the incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after pulmonary embolism is important for evaluating the need for screening but is also a subject of debate because of different inclusion criteria among previous studies. We determined the incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after acute pulmonary embolism and the utility of a screening program for this disease.

Design and Methods

We conducted a cohort screening study in an unselected series of consecutive patients (n=866) diagnosed with acute pulmonary embolism between January 2001 and July 2007. All patients who had not been previously diagnosed with pulmonary hypertension (PH) and had survived until study inclusion were invited for echocardiography. Patients with echocardiographic suspicion of PH underwent complete work-up for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, including ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy and right heart catheterization.

Results

After an average follow-up of 34 months of all 866 patients, PH was diagnosed in 19 patients by routine clinical care and in 10 by our screening program; 4 patients had chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension, all diagnosed by routine clinical care. The cumulative incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after all cause pulmonary embolism was 0.57% (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.02–1.2%) and after unprovoked pulmonary embolism 1.5% (95% CI 0.08–3.1%).

Conclusions

Because of the low incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after pulmonary embolism and the very low yield of the echocardiography based screening program, wide scale implementation of prolonged follow-up including echocardiography of all patients with pulmonary embolism to detect chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension does not seem to be warranted.     

慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压的诊断和治疗体会

目的提高对慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压(CTEPH)的认识和早期诊治水平。方法对我院1994年10月至2009年9月收治的104例CTEPH患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果 CTEPH患者中男性多见,男:女为1.97:1,平均年龄46.4±16.7岁,病史37.0±19.6月。临床主要表现有活动性呼吸困难/气促、胸闷、胸痛及咯血等。所有患者超声心动图均示肺动脉高压,其他表现有右心室扩大、三尖瓣返流、主肺动脉内占位性病变等。而血管超声示下肢静脉血栓形成占68.3%。患者确诊均通过肺动脉造影(PPA,CTPA或MRPA)。入院时54例被误诊,误诊率为52%。41例给予内科治疗,63例行肺动脉血栓内膜剥脱术,死亡6例,总手术死亡率9.5%。57例成功手术者,肺动脉收缩压由术前93.2±35.8mmHg降至术后的51.2±14.1mmHg,动脉血氧分压由52.8±7.9mmHg升至86.4±9.2mmHg,二组前后相比有显著性差异(P0.05)。结论 CTEPH临床上比较少见,容易被误诊。UCG和CTPA有较大诊断价值。内科治疗效果欠佳,肺动脉血栓内膜剥脱术应作为首选治疗手段。     

Diagnostic evaluation and management of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: A clinical practice guideline

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary embolism is a common condition. Some patients subsequently develop chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH). Many care gaps exist in the diagnosis and management of CTEPH patients including lack of awareness, incomplete diagnostic assessment, and inconsistent use of surgical and medical therapies.

METHODS

A representative interdisciplinary panel of medical experts undertook a formal clinical practice guideline development process. A total of 20 key clinical issues were defined according to the patient population, intervention, comparator, outcome (PICO) approach. The panel performed an evidence-based, systematic, literature review, assessed and graded the relevant evidence, and made 26 recommendations.

RESULTS

Asymptomatic patients postpulmonary embolism should not be screened for CTEPH. In patients with pulmonary hypertension, the possibility of CTEPH should be routinely evaluated with initial ventilation/ perfusion lung scanning, not computed tomography angiography. Pulmonary endarterectomy surgery is the treatment of choice in patients with surgically accessible CTEPH, and may also be effective in CTEPH patients with disease in more ‘distal’ pulmonary arteries. The anatomical extent of CTEPH for surgical pulmonary endarterectomy is best assessed by contrast pulmonary angiography, although positive computed tomography angiography may be acceptable. Novel medications indicated for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension may be effective for selected CTEPH patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The present guideline requires formal dissemination to relevant target user groups, the development of tools for implementation into routine clinical practice and formal evaluation of the impact of the guideline on the quality of care of CTEPH patients. Moreover, the guideline will be updated periodically to reflect new evidence or clinical approaches.     

Efficacy and safety of riociguat in the treatment of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary arterial hypertension: A meta-analysis

Background:Riociguat is a novel soluble guanylate cyclase stimulator, and has been widely used for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH). Some studies found that riociguat had better effects on CTEPH and proved to be safe, but the results were not utterly consistent. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to comprehensively evaluate the efficacy and safety of riociguat in the treatment of CTEPH.Methods:Randomized controlled trials on riociguat for the treatment of CTEPH were searched through such electronic databases as PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, China national knowledge internet, and Wanfang. The outcomes included exercise capacity, pulmonary hemodynamics, and side effects. The fixed-effects or random-effects models were used to analyze the pooled data, and heterogeneity was assessed by the I² test.Results:Four studies involving 520 patients were included in this meta-analysis. Compared with the placebo group, riociguat significantly improved the hemodynamic indexes and increased 6-min walking distance (P < .0001, standardized mean difference (SMD) = −0.24, 95%CI −0.35 to −0.12; P < .00001, SMD = 0.52, 95%CI 0.33 to 0.71), and decreased the Borg dyspnea score (P = .002, SMD = −0.31, 95%CI −0.51 to −0.12). In addition, riociguat could also significantly reduce the living with pulmonary hypertension scores and increase the EQ-5D scores (P = .01, SMD=−0.23, 95%CI −0.42 to −0.05; P < .00001, SMD = 0.47, 95%CI 0.27 to 0.66), but there was no significant difference in the change level of N-terminal pro-hormone B-type natriuretic peptide in patients with riociguat (P = .20, SMD = −0.24, 95%CI −0.61 to −0.13). The common adverse events of riociguat were dyspepsia and peripheral edema, and no other serious adverse reactions were observed.Conclusions:We confirmed that riociguat had better therapeutic effects in improving the hemodynamic parameters and exercise capacity in patients with CTEPH without inducing serious adverse events. This will provide a reasonable medication regimen for the treatment of CTEPH.     

慢性阻塞性肺疾病合并肺动脉高压诊断和治疗的新认识

肺动脉高压(pulmonary hypertension,PH)是慢性阻塞性肺疾病(chronic obstructivepulmonary disease,COPD)的一个重要合并症.COPD患者出现PH时临床上并无特异症状.目前,右心导管检查仍是诊断PH的金标准,多普勒超声心动图则为无创性诊断PH的最佳方法,核磁共振在诊断COPD合并PH中的作用仍需进行研究.长期氧疗是目前惟一证明能稳定、减轻PH进展的方法,但肺动脉压罕见恢复正常,肺血管结构的改变也依然存在.不建议使用传统的血管扩张剂,如钙离子拮抗剂、血管紧张素Ⅱ拮抗剂来治疗COPD相关的PH.新型血管扩张剂,如前列环素、磷酸二酯酶5抑制剂、内皮素受体拮抗剂在COPD相关PH中的作用缺乏大规模的随机对照研究,目前的少量研究结果令人失望.     

老年慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压患者的心肺运动试验研究

目的 明确老年慢性血栓栓塞性肺动脉高压（CTEPH）患者与年轻患者相比心肺运动试验（CPET）指标的变化。方法 2011年1月至2014年5月在阜外医院肺血管病房住院的57名CTEPH患者行CPET。按年龄是否≥60岁分为老年组（19例）和青年组（38例）。结果 两组间性别、既往深静脉血栓形成（DVT）病史的概率、接受肺动脉高压靶向药物治疗的概率、基于核素肺通气/灌注显像计算的肺血管阻塞率、世界卫生组织（WHO）功能分级差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。与青年组相比,老年CTEPH患者运动心率反应减慢,一秒用力呼气量（FEV1）、用力肺活量（FVC）下降,峰值分钟通气量（VE@峰值）、峰值潮气量（VT@峰值）更低,峰值氧脉搏（VO2/HR@峰值）占预计值的百分率增高,无氧阈（AT）时的生理死腔通气与潮气量比值（VD/VT）增高,峰值时的潮气末氧分压更低。结论 老年CTEPH患者有特殊的CPET表现。