Thioredoxin-1 blocks methamphetamine-induced injury in brain through inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in mice

Methamphetamine (METH) has been reported to induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and neuronal apoptosis in the central nervous system (CNS) during the development of addiction. Thioredoxin-1 (Trx-1) is a redox regulating protein and plays an important role in inhibiting apoptosis and protects neurons from cytotoxicity through ER and mitochondria-mediated pathways. Our previous study has been reported that Trx-1 protects mice from METH-induced rewarding effect. However, whether Trx-1 plays the role in resisting METH injury is still unclear. Here, we aim to investigate whether Trx-1 participates in the regulation of METH-induced CNS injury via ER stress and mitochondria-mediated pathways. Our study first repeated the conditioned place preference expression induced by METH. Then we detected and found that METH increased the expression of N-methyl-d-asparate (NMDA) receptor subunit 2B (NR2B) and the level of glutamate (Glu) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens (NAc), while Trx-1 overexpression suppressed the increases. We further examined ER stress-related proteins and mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in the VTA and NAc, and found that METH increased the expressions of glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP78), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), and Bax, as same time decreased the expressions of procaspase12, Bcl-2, and procaspase3, while Trx-1 overexpression blocked these changes. These results indicate that Trx-1 blocks METH-induced injury by suppressing ER stress and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in the VTA and NAc via targeting glutamatergic system.     

Olanzapine potentiates neuronal survival and neural stem cell differentiation: regulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress response proteins

Summary Recent clinical neuroimaging studies have suggested that morphological brain changes occur and progress in the course of schizophrenia. Although the neurogenetic and neurotrophic effects of antipsychotics are considered to contribute to the prevention of reduction in brain volume, the cellular molecular mechanisms of action of antipsychotics have not yet been elucidated. We examined the effects of antipsychotics on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced damages of neurons and neural stem cells (NSCs) using cultured cells. In the neuronal cultures, the atypical antipsychotic olanzapine protected neurons from thapsigargin (1 μM)-induced injury. It was observed that a low concentration of thapsigargin (10 nM) that did not affect the neuronal survival could reduce neuronal differentiation of cultured NSCs, suggesting a role of ER stress in the differentiation function of NSCs. Treatment with olanzapine increased the neuronal differentiation suppressed by the exposure to thapsigargin (10 nM). The thapsigargin-induced ER chaperones, GRP78, which indicate the ER stress condition of the cell, were decreased by the treatment with the atypical antipsychotics olanzapine and quetiapine but not by the typical antipsychotic haloperidol. These results indicate that the amelioration of ER-stress might be involved in the cellular mechanisms of atypical antipsychotics to produce neuroprotective and neurogenetic actions in neurons and NSCs, suggesting potential roles of these drugs for treatment of schizophrenia.     

GPER agonist G1 suppresses neuronal apoptosis mediated by endoplasmic reticulum stress after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Studies have confirmed a strong association between activation of the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway and cerebral ischemia/reperfusion(I/R) injury.In this study,three key proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway(glucose-regulated protein 78,caspase-12,and C/EBP homologous protein) were selected to examine the potential mechanism of endoplasmic reticulum stress in the neuroprotective effect of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor.Female Sprague-Dawley rats received ovariectomy(OVX),and then cerebral I/R rat models(OVX+ I/R) were established by middle cerebral artery occlusion.Immediately after I/R,rat models were injected with 100 μg/kg E2(OVX + I/R +E2),or 100 μg/kg G protein-coupled estrogen receptor agonist G1(OVX + I/R + G1) in the lateral ventricle.Longa scoring was used to detect neurobehavioral changes in each group.Infarct volumes were measured by 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining.Morphological changes in neurons were observed by Nissl staining.Terminal dexynucleotidyl transferase-mediated nick end-labeling staining revealed that compared with the OVX + I/R group,neurological function was remarkably improved,infarct volume was reduced,number of normal Nissl bodies was dramatically increased,and number of apoptotic neurons in the hippocampus was decreased after E2 and G1 intervention.To detect the expression and distribution of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum,caspase-12 distribution and expression were detected by immunofluorescence,and mRNA and protein levels of glucose-regulated protein 78,caspase-12,and C/EBP homologous protein were determined by polymerase chain reaction and western blot assay.The results showed that compared with the OVX+ I/R group,E2 and G1 treatment obviously decreased mRNA and protein expression levels of glucose-regulated protein 78,C/EBP homologous protein,and caspase-12.However,the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor antagonist G15(OVX + I/R + E2 + G15) could eliminate the effect of E2 on cerebral I/R injury.These results confirm that E2 and G protein-coupled estrogen receptor can inhibit the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related proteins and neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus,thereby improving dysfunction caused by cerebral I/R injury.Every experimental protocol was approved by the Institutional Ethics Review Board at the First Affiliated Hospital of Shihezi University School of Medicine,China(approval No.SHZ A2017-171) on February 27,2017.     

Aberrant neuronal differentiation and inhibition of dendrite outgrowth resulting from endoplasmic reticulum stress

Neural stem cells (NSCs) play an essential role in development of the central nervous system. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress induces neuronal death. After neuronal death, neurogenesis is generally enhanced to repair the damaged regions. However, it is unclear whether ER stress directly affects neurogenesis‐related processes such as neuronal differentiation and dendrite outgrowth. We evaluated whether neuronal differentiation and dendrite outgrowth were regulated by HRD1, a ubiquitin ligase that was induced under mild conditions of tunicamycin‐induced ER stress. Neurons were differentiated from mouse embryonic carcinoma P19 cells by using retinoic acid. The differentiated cells were cultured for 8 days with or without tunicamycin and HRD1 knockdown. The ER stressor led to markedly increased levels of ER stress. ER stress increased the expression levels of neuronal marker βIII‐tubulin in 8‐day‐differentiated cells. However, the neurites of dendrite marker microtubule‐associated protein‐2 (MAP‐2)‐positive cells appeared to retract in response to ER stress. Moreover, ER stress markedly reduced the dendrite length and MAP‐2 expression levels, whereas it did not affect the number of surviving mature neurons. In contrast, HRD1 knockdown abolished the changes in expression of proteins such as βIII‐tubulin and MAP‐2. These results suggested that ER stress caused aberrant neuronal differentiation from NSCs followed by the inhibition of neurite outgrowth. These events may be mediated by increased HRD1 expression. © 2014 The Authors Journal of Neuroscience Research Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

心肺复苏大鼠神经元凋亡和内质网应激相关因子 GRP78及CHOP表达的变化

目的 研究心跳骤停复苏后大鼠脑内质网应激相关因子葡萄糖调节蛋白78（GRP78）和 CCAAT/增强子结合蛋白同源蛋白（CHOP）表达的动态变化及其与神经元凋亡的关系,从而探讨内质网 应激与脑缺血再灌注损伤的机制。方法 将48只SD大鼠随机分为对照组和复苏组,采用经食道起搏诱 发室颤法制备大鼠心肺复苏模型;应用尼氏染色观察各组大鼠海马CA1区6 h、12 h、24 h、48 h存活神经 元形态;应用TUNEL染色法,观察各组大鼠海马CA1区神经元凋亡情况,并进行凋亡阳性细胞计数;应 用免疫组化法检测GRP78及CHOP抗原的表达、应用Western Blot法检测GRP78及CHOP蛋白的表达量。 结果 与对照组比较,复苏组大鼠海马CA1区神经元细胞变性更严重,出现凋亡细胞,随着再灌注时间 的延长,凋亡细胞明显增多。与对照组比较,复苏组GRP78阳性细胞于再灌注 6 h逐渐增多,于12 h明显 增高,此后表达逐渐减少;复苏组CHOP于再灌注6 h开始阳性细胞即有表达,逐渐增多,于再灌注 24 h 显著增加,直至48 h。结论 心跳骤停复苏后诱发内质网应激,早期通过上调促生存因子GRP78蛋白的 表达达到自我保护作用,晚期通过上调凋亡因子CHOP诱导神经元凋亡。     

泛素蛋白酶体抑制剂诱发多巴胺能神经元内质网应激反应及其凋亡的作用

目的 探讨泛素蛋白酶体(ubiquitin proteasome,UP)功能失调诱发的内质网应激反应(endoplasmic reticulum stress response,ERS)机制在多巴胺(dopamine,DA)能神经元变性死亡中的作用.方法 通过MTT及流式细胞仪检测UPS抑制剂Lactacystin对NGF诱导的PC12细胞的神经毒性作用,应用RT-PCR和Western blot技术观察Lactacystin处理后ERS通路中XBP1、Grp78、CHOP表达水平的变化及利血平耗竭胞内DA水平后的影响.结果 不同浓度的Lactacystin 5～20μmol/L处理PC12细胞后,细胞活力呈浓度依赖性下降,其中Lactacystin 10μmo1/L作用24h使细胞活力下降51%.在相同浓度条件下(10μmol/L)流式细胞仪显示的细胞凋亡率在4h、8h、1 6h、24h内逐渐增高(6.1%、14.1%、24.9%、30.9%)(P＜0.01).RT-PCR及免疫印迹检测显示UPS抑制剂处理后XBP1、Grp78和CHOP的基因及蛋白表达水平明显增加,分别在8h、16～24h达到高峰(P＜0.05).Caspase-12基因水平也在Lactacystin诱导后16h显著升高(P＜0.05).利血平预处理则使CHOP、caspase-12基因表达减弱(P＜0.05).结论 UPS功能抑制诱发的内质网应激和相关凋亡途径机制是DA能神经元选择性变性死亡的内在环节之一.     

Co-involvement of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum in regulation of apoptosis: changes in cytochrome c, Bcl-2 and Bax in the hippocampus of aluminum-treated rabbits

Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, are characterized by a progressive and selective loss of neurons. Apoptosis under mitochondrial control has been implicated in this neuronal death process, involving the release of cytochrome c into the cytoplasm and initiation of the apoptosis cascade. However, a growing body of evidence suggests an active role for the endoplasmic reticulum in regulating apoptosis, either independent of mitochondrial, or in concert with mitochondrial-initiated pathways. Members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins have been shown to either inhibit apoptosis, as is the case with Bcl-2, or to promote it, in the case of Bax. Investigations in our laboratory have focused on neuronal injury resulting from the intracisternal administration of aluminum maltolate to New Zealand white rabbits, an animal system relevant to a study of human disease in that it reflects many of the histological and biochemical changes associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Here we report that treatment of young adult rabbits with aluminum maltolate induces both cytochrome c translocation into brain cytosol, and caspase-3 activation. Furthermore, as assessed by Western blot analysis, these effects are accompanied by a decrease in Bcl-2 and an increase in Bax reactivity in the endoplasmic reticulum.     

Both endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial pathways are involved in oligodendrocyte apoptosis induced by capsular hemorrhage

ObjectiveThe white matter injury caused by intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) includes demyelination and axonal injury. Oligodendrocyte apoptosis is reported to be involved in triggering demyelination. Experimental observations indicate that both endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial pathways could mediate cell apoptosis. The purpose of this study was to investigate the demyelination and the possible mechanisms in an autologous blood-injected rat model of internal capsule hemorrhage.MethodsTransmission electron microscope was applied to examine the pathological changes of myelinated nerve fibers in internal capsule. Western blotting was used to detect the myelin basic protein (MBP) which was an important component of myelin sheath. Double immunofluorescence and Western blotting were used to determine the apoptosis and apoptotic pathways. The levels of caspase-12 (a representative protein of endoplasmic reticulum stress) and cytochrome c (an apoptosis factor released from mitochondria) were assessed in this study.ResultsDemyelination occurred on day 1, 3, and 7 after ICH onset. Myelin sheaths of internal capsule nerve fibers were swollen and broken down in ICH groups. MBP expression showed a downregulation after ICH with its minimum value occurred on day 7 post-ICH. Besides, neuron and oligodendrocyte apoptosis were observed at different time intervals post-ICH accompanied with an upregulated caspase-12 expression and enhanced cytochrome c release.ConclusionsThese results suggested that oligodendrocyte and neuron apoptosis may contribute to the demyelination induced by internal capsule hemorrhage and oligodendrocyte apoptosis is positively mediated through both endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial pathways.     

Axon injury induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and neurodegeneration

Injury to central nervous system axons is a common early characteristic of neurodegenerative diseases. Depending on its location and the type of neuron, axon injury often leads to axon degeneration, retrograde neuronal cell death and progressive permanent loss of vital neuronal functions. Although these sequential events are clearly connected, ample evidence indicates that neuronal soma and axon degenerations are active autonomous processes with distinct molecular mechanisms. By exploiting the anatomical and technical advantages of the retinal ganglion cell(RGC)/optic nerve(ON) system, we demonstrated that inhibition of the PERK-e IF2α-CHOP pathway and activation of the X-box binding protein 1 pathway synergistically protect RGC soma and axon, and preserve visual function, in both acute ON traumatic injury and chronic glaucomatous neuropathy. The autonomous endoplasmic reticulum(ER) stress pathway in neurons has been implicated in several other neurodegenerative diseases. In addition to the emerging role of ER morphology in axon maintenance, we propose that ER stress is a common upstream signal for disturbances in axon integrity, and that it leads to a retrograde signal that can subsequently induce neuronal soma death. Therefore manipulation of the ER stress pathway may be a key step toward developing the effective neuroprotectants that are greatly needed in the clinic.     

内质网应激在缺血性脑血管病中的作用

缺血性脑血管病损伤过程极为复杂．其发病机制涉及脑组织能量代谢紊乱、兴奋性氨基酸毒性、细胞内钙超载、自由基损伤、神经细胞凋亡、炎症反应等多个环节。在脑梗死神经元损伤中氧化应激和内质网应激可同时或相继发生。钙是两者相互联系的纽带，最终导致神经损伤。内质网是细胞加工蛋白质和贮存钙的主要场所，它对缺血、缺氧及钙平衡紊乱极为敏感，可导致内质网应激并激活多条信号通路。内质网应激决定了细胞的转归，如抵抗、适应、损伤或凋亡。[第一段]     

Neurons overexpressing mutant presenilin-1 are more sensitive to apoptosis induced by endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi stress

Most early-onset cases of familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD) are linked to mutations in two related genes, ps1 and ps2. FAD-linked mutant PS1 alters proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein and increases vulnerability to apoptosis induced by various cell stresses. In transfected cell lines, mutations in ps1 decrease the unfolded-protein response (UPR), which is the response to the increased amounts of unfolded proteins that accumulate in the endoplamic reticulum (ER), indicating that these mutations may increase vulnerability to ER stress by altering the UPR signalling pathway. Here we report that, in primary cultured neurons from cortices of transgenic mice, overexpression of mutated PS1 (M146L mutation) but not PS1 wild-type (wt) enhanced spontaneous neuronal apoptosis that involved oxidative stress and caspase activation. In PS1M146L cultures, neurons displaying immunoreactivity for human PS1 were threefold more vulnerable to spontaneous apoptosis than the overall neuronal population. In addition, PS1M146L transgenic neurons were more sensitive to apoptosis induced by various stresses, including two ER-Golgi toxins, nordihydroguaiatric acid and brefeldin A (also known to induce UPR), as well as staurosporine. In contrast, PS1 wt transgenic neurons were resistant to apoptosis induced by Golgi-ER toxins but displayed a comparable vulnerability to staurosporine. Our study demonstrates that, as previously reported, overexpression of FAD-linked mutant PS1 enhances neuronal vulnerability to spontaneous and induced apoptosis. In addition, we show that this vulnerability was correlated with mutant PS1 protein expression and that PS1 wt overexpression selectively prevented ER-Golgi stress-induced apoptosis. These data indicate that PS1 interferes with a specific apoptotic pathway that results from a dysfunction of the ER-Golgi compartment.     

Ulinastatin suppresses endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis in the hippocampus of rats with acute paraquat poisoning

Lung injury is the main manifestation of paraquat poisoning. Few studies have addressed brain damage after paraquat poisoning. Ulinastatin is a protease inhibitor that can effectively stabilize lysosomal membranes, prevent cell damage, and reduce the production of free radicals. This study assumed that ulinastatin would exert these effects on brain tissues that had been poisoned with paraquat. Rat models of paraquat poisoning were intraperitoneally injected with ulinastatin. Simultaneously, rats in the control group were administered normal saline. Hematoxylin-eosin staining showed that most hippocampal cells were contracted and nucleoli had disappeared in the paraquat group. Fewer cells in the hippocampus were concentrated and nucleoli had disappeared in the ulinastatin group. Western blot assay showed that expressions of GRP78 and cleaved-caspase-3 were significantly lower in the ulinastatin group than in the paraquat group. Immunohistochemical findings showed that CHOP immunoreactivity was significantly lower in the ulinastatin group than in the paraquat group. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated d UTP nick end labeling staining showed that the number of apoptotic cells was reduced in the paraquat and ulinastatin groups. These data confirmed that endoplasmic reticular stress can be induced by acute paraquat poisoning. Ulinastatin can effectively inhibit this stress as well as cell apoptosis, thereby exerting a neuroprotective effect.     

Neuronal endoplasmic reticulum stress in axon injury and neurodegeneration

Injuries to central nervous system axons result not only in Wallerian degeneration of the axon distal to the injury, but also in death or atrophy of the axotomized neurons, depending on injury location and neuron type. No method of permanently avoiding these changes has been found, despite extensive knowledge concerning mechanisms of secondary neuronal injury. The autonomous endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathway in neurons has recently been implicated in retrograde neuronal degeneration. In addition to the emerging role of ER morphology in axon maintenance, we propose that ER stress is a common neuronal response to disturbances in axon integrity and a general mechanism for neurodegeneration. Thus, manipulation of the ER stress pathway could have important therapeutic implications for neuroprotection. Ann Neurol 2013;74:768–777     

Adaptive endoplasmic reticulum stress alters cellular responses to the extracellular milieu

The ability to respond to perturbations in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function is a critical property for all cells. In the presence of chronic ER stress, the cell must adapt so that cell survival is favored or the stress may promote apoptosis. In some pathological processes, such as neurodengeneration, persistent ER stress can be tolerated for an extended period, but eventually cell death occurs. It is not known how an adaptive response converts from survival into apoptosis. To gain a better understanding of the role of adaptive ER stress in neurodegeneration, in this study, with a neuronal cell line SH‐SY5Y and primary motor neuron‐glia cell mixed cultures, we induced adaptive ER stress and modified the extracellular environment with physiologically relevant changes that alone did not activate ER stress. Our data demonstrate that an adaptive ER stress favored neuronal cell survival, but when cells were exposed to additional physiological insults the level of ER stress was increased, followed by activation of the caspase pathway. Our results indicate that an adaptive ER stress response could be converted to apoptosis when the external cellular milieu changed, suggesting that the conversion from prosurvival to proapoptotic pathways can be driven by the external milieu. This conversion was due at least partially to an increased level of ER stress. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The signaling mechanisms of hippocampal endoplasmic reticulum stress affecting neuronal plasticity-related protein levels in high fat diet-induced obese rats and the regulation of aerobic exercise

High fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity has been shown to reduce the levels of neuronal plasticity-related proteins, specifically brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and synaptophysin (SYN), in the hippocampus. However, the underlying mechanisms are not fully clear. Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) has been reported to play a key role in regulating gene expression and protein production by affecting stress signaling pathways and ER functions of protein folding and post-translational modification in peripheral tissues of obese rodent models. Additionally, HFD that is associated with hyperglycemia could induce hippocampal ERS, thus impairing insulin signaling and cognitive health in HFD mice. One goal of this study was to determine whether hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia could cause hippocampal ERS in HFD-induced obese SD rats, and explore the potential mechanisms of ERS regulating hippocampal BDNF and SYN proteins production. Additionally, although regular aerobic exercise could reduce central inflammation and elevate hippocampal BDNF and SYN levels in obese rats, the regulated mechanisms are poorly understood. Nrf2-HO-1 pathways play roles in anti-ERS, anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis in peripheral tissues. Therefore, the other goal of this study was to determine whether aerobic exercise could activate Nrf2-HO-1 in hippocampus to alleviate obesity-induced hippocampal ERS, which would lead to increased BDNF and SYN levels.Male SD rats were fed on HFD for 8 weeks to establish the obese model. Then, 8 weeks of aerobic exercise treadmill intervention was arranged for the obese rats. Results showed that HFD-induced obesity caused hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia, and significantly promoted hippocampal glucose transporter 3 (GLUT3) and fatty acid transport protein 1 (FATP1) protein expression. These results were associated with the activation of hippocampal ERS and ERS-mediated apoptosis. At the same time, we found that excessive hippocampal ERS not only significantly decreased proBDNF—the precursor of mature BDNF, but also attenuated p38/ERK-CREB signaling pathways and activated NLRP3-IL-1β pathways in obese rats. These results were associated with reduced BDNF and SYN protein production. However, these adverse changes were obviously reversed by aerobic exercise intervention through activating the Nrf2-HO-1 pathways.These results suggest that dietary obesity could induce hippocampal ERS in male SD rats, and excessive hippocampal ERS plays a critical role in decreasing the levels of BDNF and SYN. Moreover, aerobic exercise could activate hippocampal Nrf2 and HO-1 to relieve ERS and heighten BDNF and SYN production in obese rats.     

Induction of GRP78 by ischemic preconditioning reduces endoplasmic reticulum stress and prevents delayed neuronal cell death.

Although the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is implicated in neuronal degeneration in some situations, its role in delayed neuronal cell death (DND) after ischemia remains uncertain. The authors speculated that ER stress is involved in DND, that it is reduced by ischemic preconditioning, and that ER stress reduction by preconditioning is due to ER molecular chaperone induction. The phosphorylation status of eukaryotic initiation factor 2alpha (eIF2alpha) and RNA-dependent protein kinase-like ER eIF2alpha kinase (PERK) was investigated in the rat hippocampus after ischemia with and without preconditioning. PERK is phosphorylated by ER stress, which phosphorylates eIF2alpha. To investigate the role of ER molecular chaperones in preconditioning, the authors examined GRP78 and GRP94 expression, both of which are ER chaperones that inhibit PERK phosphorylation, and compared their induction and ischemic tolerance time windows. Phosphorylation of eIF2alpha and PERK was confirmed after severe ischemia but was inhibited by preconditioning. After preconditioning, GRP78 was increased in the brain with a peak at 2 days, which corresponded with the ischemic tolerance time window. Immunoprecipitation and double staining demonstrated involvement of GRP78 in prevention of PERK phosphorylation. These results suggest that GRP78 induced by preconditioning may reduce ER stress and eventual DND after ischemia.