Approach to biliary access in patients with altered anatomy

Alteration in the upper digestive tract or pancreaticobiliary anatomy poses a challenge for successful endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The alterations can arise either after surgery or because of tumor or diverticulum. In this scenario, the papilla may be unreachable or difficult to cannulate. The situation is further compounded by the lack of dedicated instruments for such procedures. Endoscopic ultrasound–guided biliary intervention and device-assisted enteroscopy are 2 techniques that have been found to be useful for ERCP in patients with altered anatomy. The ability of endoscopic ultrasound to visualize the biliary tree and enteroscope to reach deep into the small intestine has proven to be useful for ERCP in patients with altered anatomy. The technical and functional success rates of both approaches are relatively high. However, they have been associated with complications that are higher than that associated with standard ERCP. This finding is likely related to the learning curve of these advanced therapeutic interventions. With improvement in devices, technique, and accessories, both procedures are emerging as viable alternatives to standard ERCP in patients with altered anatomy.     

Evaluation of endoscopic biliary stenting for obstructive jaundice caused by hepatocellular carcinoma

AIM:To review the usefulness of endoscopic biliary stenting for obstructive jaundice caused by hepatocellular carcinoma and identify problems that may need to be addressed.METHODS:The study population consisted of 36 patients with obstructive jaundice caused by hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC)who underwent endoscopic biliary stenting(EBS)as the initial drainage procedure at our hospital.The EBS technical success rate and drainage success rate were assessed.Drainage was considered effective when the serum total bilirubin level decreased by 50%or more following the procedure compared to the pre-drainage value.Survival time after the procedure and patient background characteristics were assessed comparatively between the successful drainage group(group A)and the non-successful drainage group(group B).The EBS stent patency duration in the successful drainage group(group A)was also assessed.RESULTS:The technical success rate was 100%for both the initial endoscopic nasobiliary drainage and EBS in all patients.Single stenting was placed in 21 patients and multiple stenting in the remaining 15 patients.The drainage successful rate was 75%and the median interval to successful drainage was 40 d(2-295 d).The median survival time was 150 d in group A and 22 d in group B,with the difference between the two groups being statistically significant(P<0.0001).There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups with respect to patient background characteristics,background liver condition,or tumor factors;on the other hand,the two groups showed statistically significant differences in patients without a history of hepatectomy(P=0.009)and those that received multiple stenting(P=0.036).The median duration of stent patency was 43 d in group A(2-757 d).No early complications related to the EBS technique were encountered.Late complications occurred in 13 patients(36.1%),including stent occlusion in 7,infection in 3,and distal migration in 3.CONCLUSION:EBS is recommended as the initial drainage procedure for obstructive jaundice caused by HCC,as it appears to contribute to prolongation of survival time.     

Comprehensive review on EUS-guided biliary drainage

Feasibility of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography(ERCP) for biliary drainage is not always applicable due to anatomical alterations or to inability to access the papilla. Percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage has always been considered the only alternative for this indication. However,endoscopic ultrasonography-guided biliary drainage represents a valid option to replace percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage when ERCP fails. According to the access site to the biliary tree,two kinds of approaches may be described: the intrahepatic and the extrahepatic. Endoscopic ultrasonography-guided rendezvous transpapillary drainage is performed where the second portion of the duodenum is easily reached but conventional ERCP fails. The recent introduction of self-expandable metal stents and lumen-apposing metal stents has improved this field. However,the role of the latter is still controversial. Echoendoscopic transmural biliary drainage can be challenging with potential severe adverse events. Therefore,trained endoscopists,in both ERCP and endoscopic ultrasonography are needed with surgical and radiological backup.     

Endoscopic biliary drainage for patients with unresectable pancreatic cancer with obstructive jaundice who are to undergo gemcitabine chemotherapy

INTRODUCTION Pancreatic cancer is one of the most intractable mali- gnancies of the digestive tract and has a dismal prognosis. Such cancer in most patients is in an advanced stage when they first visit medical facilities, and management of obstructive ja…     

Stenting and interventional radiology for obstructive jaundice in patients with unresectable biliary tract carcinomas

Together with biliary drainage, which is an appropriate procedure for unresectable biliary cancer, biliary stent placement is used to improve symptoms associated with jaundice. Owing to investigations comparing percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD), surgical drainage, and endoscopic drainage, many types of stents are now available that can be placed endoscopically. The stents used are classified roughly as plastic stents and metal stents. Compared with plastic stents, metal stents are of large diameter, and have long-term patency (although they are expensive). For this reason, the use of metal stents is preferred for patients who are expected to survive for more than 6 months, whereas for patients who are likely to survive for less than 6 months, the use of plastic stents is not considered to be improper. Obstruction in a metal stent is caused by a tumor that grows within the stent through the mesh interstices. To overcome such problems, a covered metal stent was developed, and these stents are now used in patients with malignant distal biliary obstruction. However, this type of stent has been reported to have several shortcomings, such as being associated with the development of acute cholecystitis and stent migration. In spite of these shortcomings, evidence is expected to demonstrate its superiority over other types of stent.     

CT引导下一步法经皮肝穿刺胆管引流术治疗梗阻性黄疸患者疗效观察*

目的 观察在CT引导下采用一步法经皮肝穿刺胆管引流术(PTCD)治疗梗阻性黄疸患者的疗效。方法 2017年1月～2019年12月我院收治的恶性梗阻性黄疸患者60例,随机分为对照组和观察组,每组30例,分别采用在X线透视引导下或在CT引导下一步法行PTCD穿刺置管引流治疗。结果 术中,观察组穿刺一次性成功率为96.7%,显著高于对照组的43.3%(P<0.05),穿刺透视时间为(13.6±2.1)s,显著短于对照组【(32.6±4.1)s,P<0.05】,总穿刺时间为(48.9±10.3)s,显著短于对照组【(92.3±13.6)s,P<0.05】,辐射暴露剂量为(2.5±0.3)mGy,显著小于对照组【(5.8±1.1)mGy,P<0.05】;在术后2 w时,观察组血清总胆红素水平由(241.8±83.6)μmol/L降至(109.8±45.6)μmol/L,对照组由(242.4±91.2)μmol/L降至(108.4±61.9)μmol/L,两组肝功能指标变化无显著性差异(P>0.05);在术后3月末,观察组胆道感染、出血、肝脓肿和腹膜炎发生率为3.3%,显著低于对照组的26.6%(P<0.05)。 结论 在CT引导下采取一步法PTCD术治疗恶性梗阻性黄疸患者可提高穿刺效率,减少术后并发症发生率,具有较好的临床应用价值。     

经皮肝穿刺胆道取石治疗胆总管结石患者影响引流持续时间的因素分析*

目的 探讨影响经皮肝穿刺胆道引流(PTBD)治疗胆总管结石(CBDS)患者引流持续时间的因素。方法 2019年4月～2021年3月我院收治的112例CBDS患者均接受PTBD治疗。收集临床资料,以PTBD平均引流时间加标准差之和为截断点,将患者分为PTBD 持续时间延长组和正常组,应用多因素Logistic回归分析影响引流延长的因素。结果 在112例CBDS患者中,109例(97.3%)患者成功取出结石,其中81例胆道引流时间短于17天,另28例超过17天;PTBD持续时间延长组血清总胆红素【(38.1±7.3)μmol/L对(24.2±6.2)μmol/L】、淀粉酶【(403.7±15.6)U/L对(92.7±13.2)U/L】 、ALP【(302.3±52.1)U/L对(180.7±50.2)U/L】、GGT【(176.6±16.7)U/L对(93.3±15.6)U/L】、C反应蛋白【(75.1±12.2)mg/L对(56.9±10.3)mg/L】和结石直径【(16.9±2.5)mm对(11.3±2.1)mm】等均显著高于PTBD持续时间正常组,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);多因素Logistic回归分析显示血清总胆红素(OR:4.092,95%CI:1.684～9.944)和淀粉酶水平(OR:3.277,95%CI:1.348～7.965)及结石直径(OR:3.651,95%CI:1.502～8.873)是影响CBDS患者PTBD持续时间的独立因素(P＜0.05)。结论 采用PTBD治疗CBDS患者成功率高,了解一些容易导致引流时间延长的因素有助于做好术前准备和术后管理。     

Factors relating to the short term effectiveness of percutaneous biliary drainage for hilar cholangiocarcinoma

AIM: To identify factors that were related to the short term effectiveness of percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage in cholangiocarcinoma patients and to evaluate the impact of palliative drainage on their survival. METHODS: Seventy-four patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma who underwent percutaneous biliary drainage were enrolled in the study. The demographic and laboratory data as well as the imaging characteristics were retrospectively analyzed to correlate with the bile output and reduction rate of serum bilirubin 1 wk after drainage. RESULTS: Patients with more bile duct visualized on percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography or absence of multiple liver metastases on imaging studies had more bile output after biliary drainage [odds ratio (OR): 8.471, P = 0.010 and OR: 1.959, P = 0.022, respectively]. Patients with prolonged prothrombin time had a slow decrease in serum bilirubin (OR: 0.437, P = 0.005). The median survival time was not significantly different in patients with low or high bile output (75 d vs 125 d, P = 0.573) or in patients with slow or rapid reduction of serum bilirubin (88 d vs 94 d, P = 0.576). percutaneous biliary drainage was related to patient's prothrombin time or the extent of tumor involvement. It, however, had no impact on survival.     

超声内镜引导下胆汁引流治疗ERCP治疗失败的恶性梗阻性黄疸患者疗效初步研究

目的 探讨采用超声内镜引导下胆汁引流术(EUS-BD)和经皮肝胆管引流术(PTBD)再治疗经内镜逆行胰胆管造影术(ERCP)治疗失败的恶性梗阻性黄疸患者的有效性及安全性。方法 2013年1月～2018年12月我院收治的经ERCP治疗失败的恶性梗阻性黄疸患者75例,术前经B超、CT或MRCP等影像学检查证实存在恶性胆管梗阻,其中胰腺癌15例、壶腹部癌12例、胆管癌27例、胆囊癌9例、胃肠道恶性肿瘤侵犯11例和非霍奇金淋巴瘤1例。其中40例接受EUS-BD治疗,35例接受PTBD治疗。结果 在40例EUS-BD治疗患者中,采用超声内镜引导下对接技术完成治疗16例(40.0%),在超声内镜引导下顺行技术完成治疗24例(60.0%),其中37例(92.5%)操作成功,在35例PTBD治疗患者中,28例(80.0%)操作成功,EUS-BD治疗患者操作时间为治疗后,EUS-BD治疗患者血清总胆红素水平为(138.7±50.2)μmol/L,显著低于PTBD治疗患者的(162.4±60.2)μmol/L,而血清白蛋白水平为(34.8±3.7)g/L,显著高于PTBD治疗患者的(32.1±4.6)g/L,P<0.05];EUS-BD治疗患者术后并发症发生率为7.5%(3/40),其中胆道出血2例(5.0%),急性胆管炎1例(2.5%),PTBD治疗患者术后并发症发生率为22.9%(8/35,P<0.05),其中胆道出血3例(8.6%),肝包膜下出血1例(2.9%),胆汁性腹膜炎1例(2.9%),胆漏1例(2.9%),胆道感染2例(5.7%)。结论 在ERCP治疗失败的恶性胆道梗阻患者,可选择EUS-BD或PTBD进行补救治疗,或许可消退黄疸,暂时减轻病情。     

术前胆道引流对低位恶性胆道梗阻患者行胰十二指肠切除术后的影响

目的 评价术前胆道引流(PBD)对低位恶性胆道梗阻性黄接受胰十二指肠切除术(PD)后的并发症、死亡率及住院时间的影响.方法 回顾性总结分析2001年1月至2010年12月期间接受PD术的71例低位恶性胆道梗阻患者的临床资料.术前胆道引流方法包括经皮肝穿刺胆道引流(PTCD)、逆行胰胆管造影术(ERCP)及胆囊造瘘术,71例中行PBD患者19例(26.8%),未行PBD患者52例(73.2%).结果 PBD组总胆红素(TBIL)在引流前为(424.9±129.9)μmol/L,引流后下降为(77.7±48.6)μmol/L,差异具有统计学意义(t=11.1,P＜0.001).PBD组直接胆红素(DBIL)在引流前为(300.7±98.1)μmol/L,引流后下降为(60.0±34.5)μmol/L,差异具有统计学意义(t=10.7,P＜0.001).PBD组谷丙转氨酶(ALT)在引流前为(227.9±275.8)U/L,引流后下降为(90.3±66.5)U/L,差异具有统计学意义(t=2.5,P=0.023).PBD组术中输血量为(589±93)ml,非PBD组为(603±71)ml,差异无统计学意义(t=-110,P=0.913).PBD组术后并发症发生率为52.6%(10/19),非PBD组为55.8%(29/52),差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).PBD组术后住院时间为(33±3)d,非PBD组为(25±2)d,差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 对黄疸较重、肝功能严重受损的患者,行PBD可有效改善患者的一般状况,但并未降低PD术后并发症发生率及死亡率,也未减少术后的住院时间.     

Oncological benefit of preoperative endoscopic biliary drainage in patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma

Due to advances in endoscopic equipment and techniques, preoperative endoscopic biliary drainage (EBD) has been developed to serve as an alternative to percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD). This study sought to clarify the benefit of EBD in comparison to PTBD in patients who underwent radical resections of hilar cholangiocarcinoma. One hundred and forty‐one patients underwent radical surgery for hilar cholangiocarcinoma between 2000 and 2008 were retrospectively divided into two groups based on the type of preoperative biliary drainage, PTBD (n = 67) or EBD (n = 74). We investigated if the different biliary drainage methods affected postoperative survival and mode of recurrence after median observation period of 82 months. The survival rate for patients who underwent EBD was significantly higher than those who had PTBD (P = 0.004). Multivariate analysis revealed that PTBD was one of the independent factors predictive of poor survival (hazard ratio: 2.075, P = 0.003). Patients with PTBD more frequently developed peritoneal seeding in comparison to those who underwent EBD (P = 0.0003). PTBD was the only independent factor predictive of peritoneal seeding. In conclusion, EBD might confer an improved prognosis over PTBD due to prevention of peritoneal seeding, and is recommended as the initial procedure for preoperative biliary drainage in patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma.     

Effectiveness of endoscopic biliary drainage for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma associated with obstructive jaundice

Endoscopic biliary drainage (EBD) for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) associated with obstructive jaundice remains controversial because of the short survival of these patients. To evaluate the effectiveness of this procedure, we retrospectively studied 18 patients who had unresectable HCC with obstructive jaundice and underwent EBD with poly-ethylene stents, over a 10-year period. Nine patients with tumor thrombus involving the first branches of the portal vein or portal trunk (Vp3) formed group A and the other 9 (Vp0–Vp2) formed group B. The serum albumin level and serum total bililubin level differed significantly between the two groups (P < 0.05 and P < 0.005, Student's t-test), but prothrombin time did not. The obstructive jaundice was mainly caused by direct tumor invasion in 6 patients from group A and 3 from group B, by blood clots and/or tumor fragments in 2 patients from group A and 3 from group B, by the tumor protruding into the common hepatic duct in 2 patients from group B, and by tumor compression of the common bile duct in 1 patient from each group. Drainage was successful in 4 patients (44%) from group A and in all 9 patients (100%) from group B. Among the 5 patients with unsuccessful drainage in group A, 4 had obstruction of both the left and right hepatic ducts and 3 had multiple tumors in both lobes. The mean survival time (mean ± SD) after EBD was 47 ± 44 days in group A and 181 ± 70 days in group B. In group A, the average survival time was only 85 days in the 4 patients with successful drainage. However, an improvement in the quality of life after EBD was observed in one-third of the Vp3 patients and in all of the Vp0–Vp2 patients. In summary, satisfactory palliation is possible with successful EBD, but this is difficult in most patients with Vp3 portal thrombus, direct tumor invasion involving both hepatic ducts, and multiple tumors in both lobes. It is important to determine the site, extent, and nature of the obstruction, as well as liver function and the presence of portal thrombus, before performing EBD. Received: May 28, 2000 / Accepted: October 20, 2000     

Short-term effects of external and internal biliary drainage on liver and cellular immunity in experimental obstructive jaundice

Background/Purpose

The effects of preoperative biliary drainage for obstructive jaundiced patients are controversial. Although experimental studies have proven the benefit of internal biliary drainage (ID) over external biliary drainage (ED), ID has several clinical problems, such as clogging or tube replacement. The aim of this study was to determine whether there were any differences in T-cell function, liver function, and histology, between rats in ID and ED groups in short-term experiments.

Methods

Following bile duct ligation (BDL) for 14 days, rats in the ED and ID groups had 7 days of ED and 7 days of ID, respectively. Normal rats were used as negative controls (control group). For positive controls, we used a group with BDL and no drainage (BDL group). Serum bilirubin, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were measured, splenic T-cell proliferation was assayed to check cellular immunity, and liver histology was examined.

Results

Recovery of bilirubin and ALT was similar in the ED and ID groups. Recovery of AST was worse in the ID group than in the ED group, but the difference was not statistically significant. Levels of ALP in the BDL and ID groups were significantly higher than those in the control and ED groups. Rats in the BDL group showed a significant decrease in T-cell function compared to the control group. The ED group showed better recovery of T-cell function than the ID group in the 7 days after relief of obstructive jaundice. The livers in the ID group demonstrated histologically moderate interface hepatitis with periportal inflammation and lymphocyte infiltration, which strongly suggested incomplete tube obstruction, but those in the ED group showed minimal change.

Conclusions

ED is superior to ID concerning the recovery of cellular immunity and liver inflammation in the short-term after relief from biliary obstruction in this model. As the patency of the tube is well maintained in ED compared to ID, patency of the tube is essential to obtain good recovery of cellular immunity, irrespective of the drainage method.