Psychosexual and social-cognitive correlates of sexual risk behavior among male clients of female sex workers in Tijuana, Mexico

Male clients of female sex workers (FSWs) may act as a bridge to the general population contributing to the spread of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the USA and Mexico. This study used cross-sectional data to identify psychosexual and social-cognitive factors associated with sexual risk behavior in a bi-national sample of 300 male clients of FSWs recruited in Tijuana, Mexico from June to October 2008. In a multiple regression analysis, the number of unprotected vaginal sex acts with FSWs was associated with higher sexual compulsivity scores, lower self-efficacy for condom use, greater use of illicit drugs, and more financial need. Behavioral interventions are urgently needed to assist clients of FSWs in reducing high-risk behaviors in an effort to prevent the spread of HIV/STIs in this high-risk population and their sexual partners.     

Partner violence and HIV risk among female sex workers in China

Global literature suggests that partner violence contributes to HIV-related vulnerability and risk among women. Female sex workers (FSWs) play a significant role in China’s skyrocketing increase of heterosexual transmission of HIV. The aim of this article is to examine the association between partner violence and HIV risk among FSWs in China. This study, based on a cross-sectional survey of 1,022 FSWs recruited from communities in China, attempted to address the relationship between partner violence and HIV risk among this vulnerable population. About 58% of the FSWs had experienced violence from their stable partners (including 55.5% reporting emotional violence, 20.1% physical violence, and 16.2% sexual violence) and 45% from their clients (including 39.7% reporting emotional violence, 17.1% physical violence, and 16.8% sexual violence). Partner violence perpetuated by either stable partners or clients was strongly associated with most of the HIV risk measures we assessed. This study confirmed the association of partner violence and HIV risk among FSWs. We call for culturally appropriate interventions for both partner violence and HIV risk reduction among FSWs in China.     

云南省德宏州外籍暗娼艾滋病感染及其影响因素

目的了解云南省德宏州外籍暗娼艾滋病病毒（HIV）感染及相关因素状况。方法运用普查方法,对德宏州3个边境县（市）全部暗娼活动场所的外籍暗娼进行调查。匿名问卷调查收集社会人口学、艾滋病防治服务及高危行为等信息,并抽取5毫升静脉血进行HIV抗体血清学检测。结果共有238名外籍暗娼接受调查,HIV感染率为4.2％。34.5％最近1个月与客人发生性行为时未坚持使用安全套。多因素非条件Logistic回归分析结果显示,23～26岁感染HIV风险是≤22岁的10.8倍,最近1次与客人发生性行为时未使用安全套者感染HIV风险是使用者的7.8倍;未使用安全套的危险因素有艾滋病知识不知晓[比值比（OR）=4.4,95％可信区间（CD：1.9～10.2],年龄〉26岁（OR=2.4,95％CI：1.0～5.7）,以及在当地工作≥6个月（OR=2.8,95％CI：l.6～5.1）。结论德宏州外籍暗娼HIV感染率高,安全套坚持使用率不高,迫切需要加大艾滋病预防干预覆盖面及干预力度。     

Migration/mobility and risk factors for HIV among female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh, India: implications for HIV prevention

We examined the relation between high mobility/migration (sex work in three or more villages/towns within the past year) and HIV risk factors among a sample of female sex workers (FSWs) in Andhra Pradesh, India. We recruited FSWs aged ≥18 years (n = 673) through respondent-driven sampling for a survey on HIV risk. Adjusted logistic and linear regression models assessed high mobility in relation to sexual and physical victimization, sexually transmitted infection (STI) symptoms and treatment, condom use and negotiation, number and/or types of sex trades, number of clients and number of days worked. Twelve percent (n = 82) of FSWs were highly mobile; those with high mobility were more likely to report recent HIV risk factors: sexual violence (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 5.2; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.0-8.9), physical violence (AOR = 1.7; 95% CI: 1.1-2.7), unprotected sex for more money (AOR = 1.7; 95% CI: 1.1-3.0), at least one STI symptom (AOR = 1.9; 95% CI: 1.1-3.1), a greater number of vaginal sex trades (β = 3.9, P = 0.003), a greater number of clients (β = 2.5, P = 0.02) and anal sex with clients (AOR = 2.4; 95% CI: 1.4-4.1). Findings from this study underscore the violence and HIV-related vulnerability faced by mobile/migrant FSWs and highlight the need to inform and tailor related prevention strategies.     

HIV seroprevalence and high-risk sexual behavior among female sex workers in Central Brazil

Female sex workers (FSWs) are considered a high-risk group for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection due to their social vulnerability and factors associated with their work. We estimated the prevalence of HIV, and identified viral subtypes and risk factors among FSWs. A cross-sectional study using respondent-driven sampling (RDS) method was conducted among 402 FSWs in Campo Grande city, Brazil, from 2009 to 2011. Participants were interviewed using a standardized questionnaire about sociodemograpic characteristics and risk behavior. Blood samples were collected for serological testing of HIV. Of the 402 FSWs, median age and age of initiating sex work were 25 years (Interquartile range [IQR]: 9) and 20 years (IQR: 6), respectively. The majority reported use of alcohol (88.5%), had 5–9 years (median: 9; IQR: 3) of schooling (54.5%), 68.6% had tattoos/body piercings, and 45.1% had more than seven clients per week (median: 7; IQR: 10). Only 32.9% of FSW reported using a condom with nonpaying partners in the last sexual contact. Prevalence of HIV infection was 1.0% (95% CI: 0.1–2.6%). Genotyping for HIV-1 performed on three samples detected subtypes B, C, and F1. Sex work in the Midwestern region of Brazil is characterized by reduced education, large numbers of clients per week, and inconsistent condom use, mainly with nonpaying partners. Although prevalence of HIV infection is currently low, elevated levels of high-risk sexual behavior confirm a need to implement prevention measures. Specific interventions targeting FSWs must emphasize the risk associated with both clients and nonpaying partners while providing knowledge about HIV prevention.     

HIV-related behavioral risk factors among older female sex workers in Guangxi,China

Previous literature suggests a high rate of HIV infections among older female sex workers (FSWs) in China. However, limited data are available regarding HIV- related behavioral risk factors among this population. In the current study, we aim to examine the demographic and behavioral factors that place older FSWs at a high risk of HIV infection. We conducted secondary analysis of the 2010 National Sentinel Surveillance (NSS) data from Guangxi, China. A self-administered, standard behavioral surveillance survey was completed by a total of 12,622 FSWs in Guangxi, China. The Guangxi 2010 NSS sample included 19.4% FSWs aged 35 years or older (“older FSWs”). The overall HIV prevalence was 1.0% for the entire sample with 2.0% among older FSWs and 0.8% among younger ones. Older age was an independent predictor of unprotected sex, injection drug use, and a self-reported history of syphilis infection. Future HIV prevention interventions targeting FSWs should consider older FSWs' vulnerable status. Efforts are needed to address their financial needs and invest in skills for socio-economic empowerment.     

Prevalence of HIV and factors associated with risk behaviours among Chinese female sex workers in Hong Kong

The study examined the HIV prevalence and factors associated with risk behaviours among Chinese female sex workers (FSW) in Hong Kong. Unlinked anonymous HIV antibody testing and interviews, using structured questionnaires, were conducted for 293 FSW. None was tested HIV positive. In the last 6 months, 13.7% self-reported having contracted STD, 50.7% were not using condoms with their male clients consistently; 73.3% and 22.6% respectively had had unprotected sex with boyfriends and one-night-stand partners. Believing that condom use with a boyfriend is a mistrust and the perception that one did not have full control over condom use decisions, would agree not to use condoms if being paid more, and could not refuse to have unprotected sex with clients were significantly associated with condom use with various types of sex partners (OR =1.95 to 4.83). FSW has low HIV prevalence but high prevalence of risk behaviours. Bridging effects exist. Empowerment of FSW is warranted.     

Heavy episodic drinking among Kenyan female sex workers is associated with unsafe sex, sexual violence and sexually transmitted infections

This study examined patterns of alcohol use and its association with unsafe sex and related sequelae among female sex workers in Mombasa, Kenya. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted using snowball sampling. Binge drinkers (> or =5 alcoholic drinks on > or =1 occasion in the previous month) were compared with non-binge drinkers. Of 719 participants, 22.4% were lifetime-alcohol abstainers, 44.7% non-binge and 33.0% binge drinkers. Compared with non-binge drinkers, binge drinkers were more likely to report unprotected sex (adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=1.59, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.00-2.53; P=0.047) and sexual violence (AOR=1.85, 95% CI=1.27-2.71; P=0.001) and to have either syphilis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Trichomonas vaginalis infection (AOR=1.56, 95% CI=1.00-2.41; P=0.048). HIV prevalence was higher among women having ever drunk (39.9%) than lifetime abstainers (23.2%; P<0.001), but was not associated with drinking patterns. Interventions are needed to assist female sex workers adopt safer drinking patterns. Investigation is needed for the effectiveness of such interventions in reducing unprotected sex, sexual violence and sexually transmitted infections.     

云南省某市女性性工作者HIV感染及其危险因素调查

目的 了解云南省某市女性性工作者（FSWs）艾滋病病毒（HIV）和性传播疾病（盯D）韵感染情况及HIV感染相关危险因素。方法 招募FSWs调查其一般人口学及行为学资料，采集静脉血进行HIV、单纯疱疹病毒2型（HSV-2）和梅毒血清学检测，采集尿液进行尿吗啡检测，采集宫颈分泌物进行淋球菌和沙眼衣原体检测，采集阴道分泌物进行阴道毛滴虫检测。结果 共收集血液标本737份，其中76份经确认为HIV抗体阳性，感染率为10．3％，梅毒感染率为7．5％，HSV-2感染率为68．1％。共收集阴道和宫颈分泌物标本各737份，淋病感染率为8．3％，沙眼衣原体感染率为25．9％，阴道毛滴虫感染率为10．6％。共收集尿标本739份，吗啡阳性率为15．6％。多因素logistic回归模型分析显示，与HIV感染有关的危险因素是：低档性服务场所服务，静脉注射吸毒，过去一年出现下腹部疼痛，生殖器溃疡，外阴增生物，从事性服务时间≥5年，HSV-2阳性。结论 当地FSWs的HIV和STD感染率较高，需针对该人群采取有效的干预措施，及时治疗STD，控制HIV的传播流行。     

HIV testing among female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh, India

Of 6648 female sex workers (FSW) in 13 districts of Andhra Pradesh state in India, only 7.9% reported having undergone HIV testing, and three-quarters of the rest were unwilling to undergo HIV testing in the future. The risk of HIV infection as a result of the non-use of condoms was higher among FSW who reported not having been tested and were also unwilling to get tested, and they also held significantly more negative beliefs about HIV/AIDS.     

Human papillomavirus prevalence, cervical abnormalities and risk factors among female sex workers in Lima, Peru

Female sex workers (FSWs) are at high risk of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Questionnaires were administered to 200 FSWs aged 18-26 years in Lima, Peru, to gather risk behaviours, and cervical swab samples were collected for Pap smears and HPV DNA testing as part of a longitudinal study. Participants reported a median of 120 clients in the past month, and 99.2% reported using condoms with clients. The prevalence of any HPV in cervical samples was 66.8%; 34 (17.1%) participants had prevalent HPV 16 or 18, and 92 (46.2%) had one or more oncogenic types. Fifteen women had abnormal Pap smears, 13 of which were HPV DNA positive. Fewer years since first sex was associated with oncogenic HPV prevalence in a model adjusted for previous sexually transmitted infection (STI) status and condom use with partners (prevalence ratio = 0.77, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.60-0.97). Our data confirm the high rates of HPV transmission among FSWs in Peru, highlighting the need for early and effective strategies to prevent cervical cancer.     

不同场所暗娼的高危行为和HIV/STI感染状况调查

目的 了解不同场所中暗娼与艾滋病（AIDS）传播有关的行为，以及艾滋病病毒/性传播感染（HIV／STI）的感染状况，为开展有针对性的行为干预提供依据。方法 对贵阳市云岩区宾馆、酒店、卡拉OK歌厅等娱乐场所的暗娼进行两阶段概率抽样，发廊和街头的暗娼在知情同意后全部纳入调查。收集人口学和高危行为信息，并采集静脉血检测HIV、梅毒、乙型肝炎病毒（HBV）、丙型肝炎病毒（HCV）。结果 432名暗娼中，来自宾馆、酒店及娱乐场所占50．9％，发廊占25．5％，街头占23．6％。与前两组相比，街头暗娼平均年龄较大（30．6岁），文化程度较低（小学和文盲占54．9％），首次性交年龄（18．7岁）和首次从事性交易年龄（27．9岁）较大，从事性交易时间较长（4年及以上者占21．6％）。调查对象最近一次与客人发生性关系时使用安全套的比例为81．3％，最近1个月与客人发生性关系时，每次都使用安全套的比例为44．9％，从未使用的占8．1％。17．6％的街头暗娼有吸毒行为。HIV感染率为0．2％，HBV感染率为4．6％，HCV感染率为4．9％，梅毒感染率为13．0％。结论 街头暗娼高危行为的危险性最高，STI的感染率也高于其他场所的暗娼，应作为监测和干预的重点亚人群。     

Risk factors for herpes simplex virus type 2 infection among female commercial sex workers in Mexico City

A scarce number of studies have been carried out to determine the epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection in female sex workers (FSWs). The objective of this study was to examine the correlates of infection for HSV-2 with socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, sexual behaviour and history of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among FSWs in Mexico City. A sample frame of commercial sex work sites was constructed during the fall of 1992. Sites identified were streets, bars and massage parlours. During 1993 we surveyed 757 FSWs aged 18-76 years, from a random sample of sites. Participating women provided a blood sample and answered a standardized questionnaire. HSV-2 antibodies were identified based on a Western blot assay, using type-specific recombinant glycoprotein gG2. In a multivariate analysis, the presence of HSV-2 antibodies was correlated (P < 0.005) with increasing age and time working as prostitutes, low education, street working site and positive serology for syphilis. The results showed that the working site and the education level are contextual variables related to the risk of HSV-2 infection, where poorly educated and street FSWs had the highest probability of infection. Characteristics that represent periods of exposure to the virus as age and time working in prostitution were predictors of the HSV-2 infection.     

Risk factors for HIV infection among sex workers in Johannesburg, South Africa

Our objective was to determine the prevalence and risk factors for HIV infection among female sex workers in Johannesburg, South Africa. A cross-sectional survey of female sex workers was conducted using interviewer-administered questionnaires. Prevalent sexually transmitted infections including HIV were evaluated through standard laboratory testing. HIV infection was identified in 137 (46.4%) of 295 subjects tested. Increasing frequency of condom use was significantly negatively associated with HIV infection (odds ratio [OR] for moderate use = 0.21; 95% confidence interval [CI]: [0.09, 0.50]; OR for high use = 0.14; 95% CI: [0.06, 0.34]). Sex workers aged > or = 29 years reported significantly different patterns of behaviour than younger workers. Among women aged > or = 29, a negative association with HIV infection (OR = 0.16; 95% CI: [0.07, 0.38]) was found, but only among those not infected with Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Older women in the Johannesburg sex industry may have adaptive behavioural strategies besides condom usage which reduce their risk of acquiring HIV. However, older sex workers with gonorrhoea constitute a high-risk subgroup.     

Correlates of partner violence among female street-based sex workers: substance abuse, history of childhood abuse, and HIV risks

This study examines the prevalence of physical and sexual abuse by intimate and commercial sexual partners among street-based sex workers and explores correlates of partner abuse by commercial partners using the following factors: sociodemographics, substance abuse, sexual behavior, and physical and sexual childhood abuse. One hundred thirteen street sex workers were recruited from December 1996 through May 1997 while receiving services from the Foundations for Research on Sexually Transmitted Diseases (FROST'D), a nonprofit organization based in New York City. Partner abuse is a common occurrence among street sex workers. Two of three street prostitutes have experienced lifetime physical or sexual abuse by either an intimate or commercial partner. In addition, one of eight reported physical and sexual abuse by both intimate and commercial partners during her lifetime. Women who were homeless in the last year, those who reported exchanging for drugs and money as their main source of income, used injection drugs in the past year and had sex in crack houses, and who were human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive were more likely to be report combined physical and sexual abuse. Understanding the relationship between partner violence, victim's substance abuse, and HIV-risk behavior is important for the development of public policies and treatment and prevention strategies to address the constellation of problems that drug-using female street sex workers face.     

Engagement in the HIV Care Continuum among Key Populations in Tijuana,Mexico

In Tijuana, Mexico, HIV is concentrated in sub-epidemics of key populations: persons who inject drugs (PWID), sex workers (SW), and men who have sex with men (MSM). To date, data on engagement in the HIV care continuum among these key populations, particularly in resource-constrained settings, are sparse. We pooled available epidemiological data from six studies (N = 3368) to examine HIV testing and treatment uptake in these key populations; finding an overall HIV prevalence of 5.7 %. Of the 191 identified HIV-positive persons, only 11.5 % knew their HIV-positive status and 3.7 % were on ART. Observed differences between these HIV-positive key populations suggest PWID (vs. non-PWID) were least likely to have previously tested or initiate HIV care. MSM (vs. non-MSM) were more likely to have previously tested but not more likely to know their HIV-positive status. Of persons aware of their HIV-positive status, SW (vs. non-SW) were more likely to initiate HIV care. Findings suggest engagement of key populations in HIV treatment is far below estimates observed for similarly resource-constrained generalized epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa. These data provide one of the first empirical-snapshots highlighting the extent of HIV treatment disparities in key populations.     

Drug sharing with clients as a risk marker for increased violence and sexual and drug-related harms among survival sex workers

Previous studies have described links between violence, decreased condom use and drug sharing among intimate partners, though limited information exists about the predictors of drug sharing among female sex workers and their clients. The following analysis explored the association between sharing illicit drugs with clients and sexual and drug-related harms among survival sex workers. A total of 198 women participated in interview-administered questionnaires and confidential HIV testing. Of the total, 117 (59%) reported sharing drugs with clients/johns in the last six months and crack cocaine was the primary drug shared (n=108). In logistic regression analysis, sharing drugs with clients/johns was associated with borrowing a used crack pipe (AOR=5.63; 95%CI: 2.71-9.44; p<0.001), intensive/daily crack cocaine smoking (AOR=3.78; 95%CI:1.60-8.92; p<0.002), inconsistent condom use by a client/john (AOR=3.17; 95%CI:1.48-6.77; p<0.003) and having a recent bad date (verbal harassment, physical and/or sexual assault) (AOR=2.71; 95%CI:1.17-6.32; p=0.021). Sharing illicit drugs with clients/johns may be a crucial risk marker for increased violence and sexual and drug-related harms among survival sex workers. HIV prevention and harm reduction initiatives targeting both women and clients/johns are urgently needed, including enhanced support for community and peer-driven sex work initiatives, to address some of the structural facilitators for HIV transmission.     

Age group differences in HIV risk and mental health problems among female sex workers in Southwest China

HIV risk and mental health problems are prevalent among female sex workers (FSWs) in China. The purpose of this research was to study age group differences in HIV risk and mental health problems in this population. In the current study, we divided a sample of 1022 FSWs into three age groups (≤?20 years, 21–34 years, and ≥?35 years). Results showed that among the three groups (1) older FSWs (≥?35 years) were likely to be socioeconomically disadvantaged (e.g., rural residency, little education, employment in low-paying venues, and low monthly income); (2) older FSWs reported the highest rates of inconsistent, ineffective condom use, and sexually transmitted diseases history; (3) younger FSWs (≤?20 years) reported the highest level of depression, suicidal thoughts and suicide attempts, regular-partner violence, and substance use; (4) all health-related risks except casual-partner violence were more prevalent among older and younger FSWs than among FSWs aged 21–34 years; and (5) age had a significant effect on all health indicators except suicide attempts after controlling for several key demographic factors. These findings indicate the need for intervention efforts to address varying needs among FSWs in different age groups. Specific interventional efforts are needed to reduce older FSWs' exposure to HIV risk; meanwhile, more attention should be given to improve FSWs' mental health status, especially among younger FSWs.     

Gender, work, and HIV risk: determinants of risky sexual behavior among female entertainment workers in China.

We proposed to integrate cognitive and social factors in the study of unprotected commercial sex. Data from 159 female entertainment workers from 15 establishments in Shanghai who reported commercial sex in the month prior to interview were used to test the approach. Two-sample t tests and multivariate logistic regression were conducted to examine if and how individual cognitive and social influence factors affect the odds of consistent condom use. About 21% of participants reported consistent condom use. Both individual cognitive and social influence factors were important correlates of condom use; models containing either alone suffered significantly in explanatory power. Perceived easiness in condom use was the most proximate determinant of condom use. It helped to translate HIV knowledge and prevention motivation into behavior and to mediate the impact of sexual relationship power. Prevention intervention is urgently needed and should focus on self-efficacy training and promoting supportive social and working environments.