Popliteal vascular trauma: therapeutic management]

The functional severity of popliteal artery injury is intimately related to the direct consequences of tissue ischaemia increased by the associated traumatic attrition. The conservation of a functional limb requires: limitation of the duration and repercussions of ischaemia, by the use of a rigorous therapeutic protocol; "functional" surgical or even microsurgical reconstruction whose limits are still confused with the degree of traumatic myolysis and the potential of nervous recovery. Therefore, it seems obvious that the major difficulty lies in the definition of the limits for limb preservation.     

Popliteal vascular injuries

Popliteal vascular injury remains one of the most difficult diagnostic and therapeutic challenges for trauma surgeons. Only with strict attention to rapid diagnosis; early surgical treatment with meticulous technical skill; and aggressive use of various adjunctive measures, such as completion arteriography, anticoagulation, fasciotomy, and proper prioritization of management of multiple injuries, can limb salvage be optimized.     

An experience with upper-extremity vascular trauma

In this 6-year study of 101 limbs requiring surgical intervention for upper-extremity vascular trauma, most patients were male, young, and injured by penetrating objects. Injured vessels included 13 axillary/subclavian, 23 brachial, 40 radial, and 25 ulnar arteries. Concomitant injuries included nerve injury in 50 cases, tendon laceration in 29, and bony fracture in 11. Arterial repair was accomplished by primary repair in 54 limbs, vein graft in 26 limbs, and vein patch in 3 limbs. Seventeen arterial injuries were ligated. Ancillary procedures included 30 nerve or 27 tendon repairs. The limb salvage rate was 99%. No functional deficits were noted in those cases with only a vascular injury. In 64% and 25% of patients with nerve or musculoskeletal injury, respectively, the arm was functionally impaired. Prompt diagnosis and surgical intervention eliminate vascular injury as a factor in upper-extremity limb loss or disability. Functional deficits are the result of nerve or orthopedic injuries.     

Popliteal artery trauma. A critical appraisal of an uncommon injury

Although popliteal artery injuries are uncommon, the consequent lack of management protocols may contribute to an already high level of outcome morbidity. We critically reviewed all nine cases of popliteal artery trauma treated at our institution in the last 5 years. The main findings were that blunt trauma was predominant and most patients presented with severe signs of ischaemia. Long delays occurred between injury and treatment, mostly due to the tyranny of distance. Nevertheless, most patients were subjected to further delay whilst undergoing unnecessary formal angiography. Interposition vein graft using contralateral long saphenous vein was the predominant procedure for arterial injury. Most patients did not receive systemic anticoagulation or fasciotomy, and none received intra-operative thrombolysis. Our limb salvage rate was 7/9, although two of these had persistent neurological disability. We criticise our shortcomings in the light of the current literature.     

A decade of missile-induced vascular trauma.

During 10 years of serious strife the Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast, has dealt with trauma inflicted by a wide variety of missiles. Injuries involving 316 vessels were sustained by 192 patients. A group of "knee-cappings' accounted for a large proportion of popliteal vessel injuries. A majority of patients also suffered damage to other regions of the body. Hypotension was a notable feature and several patients arrived in extremis, particularly those with injuries to a major vessel trunks and vital organs. The benefits of rapid evacuation in relation to ischaemia time are discussed. The operative management of a wide range of arterial and venous injuries is described. The use of simple and compound vein grafts allowed adequate excision of damaged vessels. The advantages of meticulous repair, timely fasciotomy, and early reintervention are reflected in the results, contributing to the small lower-lib amputation rate of 5.1%.     

Popliteal aneurysms. Our experience apropos of 119 cases

The authors report their experience of 119 popliteal aneurysms diagnosed in 76 patients. They feel that the prevalence of such aneurysms is underestimated. In 56% of cases there were bilateral aneurysms and in 24% of cases there was an associated aortic aneurysm. In 68% of cases, the popliteal aneurysm presented with complications. Clinical examination of the popliteal fossa gave a diagnosis in 66% of cases. In 1/3 of cases, arteriography failed to provide direct visual evidence of the aneurysm. The arteriographic diagnosis was then that of a femoro-popliteal thrombosis, of stenosis or isolated popliteal thrombosis. In all these difficult cases, echotomography is essential to diagnosis. The authors feel that indications for surgery should be as wide as possible. They consider that there are three types of contraindications: an excessively precarious physical condition, absence of a distal vascular network, an asymptomatic thrombosed popliteal aneurysm.     

Popliteal artery trauma in a rural level I trauma center

Popliteal vascular trauma has historically been an urban phenomenon. We hypothesized that rural popliteal artery injury would result more often from blunt mechanisms of injury (MOI), have a longer time to operation, and result in a higher amputation rate. We retrospectively reviewed all cases of popliteal artery injury from December 1994 to May 2001 at our rural trauma center. Age, gender, Injury Severity Score (ISS), MOI, scene transport versus transfer from a referring hospital, time to operation, and operative times were studied. Significance was determined by Student's t test with a P value < or = 0.05. Thirty-two popliteal artery injuries were found. Blunt trauma accounted for 50 per cent of the injuries. Eighty-eight per cent of the patients were transferred from a referring hospital. Patients transported directly from the scene had a higher ISS. Longer operative times translated into an increased need for fasciotomy. The amputation rate was 19 per cent. This is the first attempt to delineate the specific nature of rural popliteal artery trauma. The amputation rate was not different between the two different MOI and was independent of the time to operation. Of those patients receiving an amputation 83 per cent were transferred from another hospital and despite a statistically lower ISS still required an amputation.     

Civilian trauma in the 1980s. A 1-year experience with 456 vascular and cardiac injuries.

During 1982, 312 patients with 408 vascular injuries and 48 cardiac injuries were seen. Two or more vascular or cardiac injuries were present in 34% of patients. Over 87% of injuries were secondary to gunshot wounds, stab wounds, or shotgun wounds. Vascular injuries were most commonly seen in the extremities (39.9%) or abdomen (31.9%). The most common arterial injuries occurred in the brachial artery (39 patients), while the most common venous injuries occurred in the internal jugular vein (26 patients). Arterial injuries were treated by the insertion of substitute vascular conduits (33.9%), ligation (22.6%), lateral arteriorrhaphy (18.6%), or end-to-end anastomosis (15.4%). Venous injuries were treated by lateral venorrhaphy (63.7%) or ligation (25.1%). In the 272 patients admitted with only vascular injuries, survival was 84.2%. Cardiac injuries in 38 patients most commonly occurred in the right ventricle (50%) and right atrium (25%). In the 34 patients who had only cardiac injuries and less than 4 minutes of prehospital cardiopulmonary arrest prior to arrival in the emergency center, survival was 64.7%.     

Popliteal vasculature injuries in paediatric trauma patients

Popliteal-artery injuries in the paediatric-trauma patient are uncommon, difficult to diagnose and with prolonged ischaemia lead to substantial complications. We report three cases of popliteal-vasculature injury in paediatric-trauma patients with diverse mechanisms of injury: blunt trauma, penetrating injury and a Salter-Harris I fracture. We present a range of the significant sequelae that can result from paediatric popliteal-artery injury, both physically and psychologically. It is imperative that clinicians have a high index of suspicion when confronted with paediatric patients with trauma around the knee and that popliteal-vasculature injuries are diagnosed early. If insufficiencies are detected, further imaging should be considered, but surgical exploration should not be delayed in the presence of ischaemia.     

Visceral angiography. A community hospital experience.

Selective visceral angiography is well within the ability of small community hospitals. If carefully performed by a well-trained interested radiologist, the procedures carry negligible morbidity and mortality. These studies can provide an exact diagnosis, a working differential or at least enough data to plan a surgical approach with accuracy. Nine cases in which the angiographic diagnosis was vital to the patients' care have been presented.     

Popliteal artery trauma. Systemic anticoagulation and intraoperative thrombolysis improves limb salvage.

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to evaluate those factors associated with popliteal artery injury that influence amputation, with emphasis placed on those that the surgeon can control. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Generally accepted factors impacting amputation after popliteal artery injury include blunt trauma, prolonged ischemic times, musculoskeletal injuries, and venous disruption. Amputation ultimately results from microvascular thrombosis and subsequent tissue necrosis, predisposed by the paucity of collaterals around the knee. METHODS: Patients with popliteal artery injuries over the 10-year period ending November 1995 were identified from the trauma registry. Preoperative (demographics, mechanism and severity of injury, vascular examination, ischemic times) and operative (methods of arterial repair, venous repair-ligation, anticoagulation-thrombolytic therapy, fasciotomy) variables were studied. Severity of extremity injury was quantitated by the Mangled Extremity Severity Score (MESS). Amputations were classified as primary (no attempt at vascular repair) or secondary (after vascular repair). After univariate analysis, logistic regression analysis was performed to identify the independent risk factors for limb loss. RESULTS: One hundred two patients were identified; 88 (86%) were males and 14 (14%) were females. Forty injuries resulted from blunt and 62 from penetrating trauma. There were 25 amputations (25%; 11 primary and 14 secondary). Patients with totally ischemic extremities (no palpable or Doppler pulse) more likely were to be amputated (31% vs. 13%; p < 0.04). All requiring primary amputations had severe soft tissue injury and three had posterior tibial nerve transection; the average MESS was 7.6. Logistic regression analysis identified independent factors associated with secondary amputation: blunt injury (p = 0.06), vein injury (p = 0.06), MESS (p = 0.0001), heparin-urokinase therapy (p = 0.05). There were no complications with either heparin or urokinase. CONCLUSIONS: Minimizing ischemia is an important factor in maximizing limb salvage. Severity of limb injury, as measured by the MESS, is highly predictive of amputation. Intraoperative use of systemic heparin or local urokinase or both was the only directly controllable factor associated with limb salvage. The authors recommend the use of these agents to maximize limb salvage in association with repair of popliteal artery injuries.     

Popliteal artery trauma: a high risk injury

The clinical presentation and management of 28 popliteal artery injuries following penetrating and blunt trauma during a 6 year period is reviewed. Clinical and Doppler evaluation identified an arterial injury in 24 (85 per cent) patients. In eight (29 per cent) patients with arteriovenous fistulae or false aneurysms, pedal pulses were palpable during initial assessment. Three (10.7 per cent) patients had limb amputation attributable to delayed vascular repair, crush injury and sepsis. End-to-end arterial repair following blunt trauma resulted in early failure with thrombosis in two patients. Autogenous vein grafting was used in 12 patients and is advocated in all blunt popliteal arterial injuries. Routine repair of associated venous injuries and liberal criteria for early fasciotomy were used. Exoskeletal fixation or skeletal traction for compound and comminuted fractures is recommended for simplicity of application and wound management. The significant functional orthopaedic disability following blunt arterial trauma at the knee is emphasized.     

Mesenteric vascular problems. A 26-year experience.

Mesenteric vascular problems are infrequent, but may be catastrophic. During a 26-year period, 55 private patients were treated for the following disorders: (1) 12 patients with visceral artery aneurysms, (2) 8 with celiac compression syndrome, (3) 13 with chronic mesenteric ischemia, (4) 12 with acute mesenteric ischemia, and (5) 10 with mesenteric ischemia associated with aortic reconstructions. Splenic artery aneurysms were managed by excision and splenectomy, while celiac and hepatic had excision with graft replacement. Patients with celiac compression syndrome underwent lysis of the celiac artery. Two patients had compression of both celiac and superior mesenteric artery (SMA). One patient required vascular reconstruction of both arteries for residual stenoses. Patients having chronic mesenteric ischemia were treated with bypass grafts, with one death (7.7% mortality) and good long-term results. Those with acute mesenteric ischemia were treated by SMA embolectomy, bowel resection, or both, with a mortality of 67%. When associated with aortic reconstructions, mesenteric ischemia carried a mortality of 100% if bowel infarction occurred after operation, but when prophylactic mesenteric revascularization was performed at the time of aortic surgery, prognosis was greatly improved, with only one death among six patients. An aggressive approach including prompt arteriography with early diagnosis and surgical therapy is advocated for these catastrophic acute mesenteric problems.     

Popliteal artery injuries: the Kashmir experience

BACKGROUND: Popliteal artery injuries pose a serious threat to limb survival. Blunt trauma appears to be associated with a higher amputation rate than penetrating trauma, probably because of the more extensive nature of the injuries. METHODS: Two hundred seventy-two cases of popliteal artery injury were studied retrospectively from 1989 to 2001, a warlike period in Kashmir. Preoperative angiography was not performed. Thirty-two percent of patients had associated venous injury and 24.6% of patients had associated bone fracture. RESULTS: Overall morbidity was 55%, with the most common complication being infection (24%). Secondary amputation had to be performed in 16 patients (5.5%). The amputation rate was not influenced by cause of injury and type of repair or the presence of venous injury, but associated bone fracture significantly increased the risk of amputation (p < 0.05). The patients who underwent repair more than 12 hours after sustaining injury had a significantly greater amputation rate (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Prompt resuscitation, vascularization, and proper technique appear to be the only correctable factors that improve limb salvage.     

Popliteal vascular compression in a normal population

Purpose: Positional popliteal artery obstruction is believed to be an important factor contributing to popliteal artery entrapment syndromes. This study was undertaken to define the positional anatomy and physiologic condition of the vessels in the popliteal fossa in groups of highly trained and normally active young men and women. We postulate that at least some symptom-free individuals can occlude the popliteal artery with leg positioning.Methods: Seventy-two limbs were evaluated in 36 subjects. Symptom-free subjects were recruited in four groups: normally active men, normally active women, male competitive runners, and female competitive runners. All subjects underwent noninvasive testing that included resting segmental limb pressures and Doppler waveforms and color-flow duplex imaging with the leg in the neutral position and then with knee extension with active and passive dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of the foot. Subjects unable to occlude the popliteal artery with positioning were then exercised, and studies were repeated. Magnetic resonance imaging, with magnetic resonance angiography, was conducted on 14 subjects, with each leg studied in the neutral position and with active positioning.Results: Positional popliteal arterial occlusion occurred in 38 of 72 limbs (53%). No intergroup comparisons were statistically significant. The response of each leg was symmetric in 89% of subjects. No subject who could not occlude the popliteal artery at rest was able to do so with exercise. Magnetic resonance imaging disclosed normal anatomy in all subjects and showed the location of popliteal occlusion to be at the level of the soleal sling, with positional compression by the soleus muscle, the lateral head of the gastrocnemius, the plantaris, and popliteus muscles.Conclusion: Popliteal arterial occlusion can be induced in 53% of subjects with simple leg positioning caused by myofascial compression. This must be considered when evaluating patients for intervention on the basis of physiologic testing of the popliteal vessels. (J VASC SURG 1994;20:978-86.)