Evolution of early perihemorrhagic changes--ischemia vs. edema: an MRI study in rats

OBJECTIVES: Cerebral ischemia has been proposed as a contributing mechanism to secondary neuronal injury after intracranial hemorrhage (ICH). The search for surrogate parameters that allow treatment stratification for spontaneous ICH continues. We aimed to examine perihemorrhagic ischemic changes with an animal experimental MRI study. METHODS: A high field MRI compatible setup for male Wistar rats was established using a double injection model. ICH was stereotactically placed into the right basal ganglia of 29 Wistar rats. Coronal T2-WI, T2*-WI and DWI were generated with a 2.35 T animal MRI scanner 15 min, 60 min and 210 min after ICH. Clot signal characteristics, clot volumes and normalized ADC values were analyzed in four hematoma regions (core, periphery, outer rim, healthy ipsilateral tissue) in all sequences. RESULTS: T2*-WI and DWI reliably demonstrated ICH in 100% with only small deviation from the applied volume (-20% to +26%) whereas T2-WI failed to conspicuously show ICH. There were no perihemorrhagic ADC decreases consistent with ischemic cytotoxic edema but a mild vasogenic edema surrounding the ICH could be observed. CONCLUSION: T2*-WI and DWI are accurate for the diagnosis of hyperacute ICH. According to serial and crossectional ADC analysis, there is no hint towards the existence of a perihemorrhagic ischemic area that might be saved by early intervention. Future studies should focus on perfusion and metabolic/neurotoxic studies of this particular area and neurotoxic properties of the surrounding edema.     

Intracranial hemorrhage

The initial and exclusive use of MRI in patients with a stroke syndrome is feasible, probably cost-effective, and even time saving when considering its potential wealth of information. MRI may be the diagnostic tool of choice in patients with all stages of stroke, especially in the hyperacute assessment of ICH, and could be equivalent to CT and CTA in SAH diagnosis. The authors’ aim is to provide a comprehensive review about the potential role of MRI in evaluating ICH and SAH. Emerging applications, such as the assessment of microbleeds as a risk factor for secondary hemorrhage after thrombolysis and perihemorrhagic ischemic changes as a potential marker for patients likely to benefit from hematoma evacuation, are reviewed.     

Diffusion-perfusion MR evaluation and spectroscopy before and after surgical therapy for intracerebral hemorrhage

Introduction: Advanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques provide metabolic/hemodynamic information that is useful in the diagnosis of ischemic stroke. To date, however, their application in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) has been limited. We postulate that these MRI techniques may help define mechanisms of secondary damage and assess effects of therapeutic interventions in perihematoma tissue after ICH. Methods: A 44-year-old woman presented with severe headache resulting from a right temporal ICH. After developing neurological deterioration 5 days after the bleed, the patient underwent evacuation of the hematoma. Specimen pathology suggested the presence of a small vascular malformation. Diffusion- and perfusion-weighted imaging as well as proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (¹H-MRSI) investigations to assess perihematoma brain tissue metabolic and circulatory profiles were performed before and after hematoma evacuation. Results: Pre-operative results showed mild oligemia posterior to the hematoma, increased average diffusion coefficient (DAV), and normal perihematoma N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA) concentration on ¹H-MRSI. This profile was interpreted as inconsistent with ischemia (as defined by reduced DAV and NAA) but compatible with perihematoma inflammation (as defined by elevated DAV and lactate signal). Postsurgical MRI investigations showed near normalization of the perfusion deficit. Conclusion: We postulate that mass effect produced by the hematoma, and perhaps inflammation, can induce perilesional reduced cerebral perfusion in a reversible manner.     

Endoscopy-guided removal of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: comparison with computer tomography-guided stereotactic evacuation

Background and purpose Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) continues to be a major medical and socioeconomic problem. While the surgical procedure failed to show benefits over functional outcome, a less invasive and quicker surgical decompression might improve the outcome. The authors introduced endoscopy-guided evacuation in managing ICH and reports the benefits over the conventional method. Materials and methods Twenty-seven cases underwent endoscopic evacuation of ICH (Group E). The clinical features and outcomes were compared to the retrospective data of 20 cases who underwent computer tomography (CT)-guided stereotactic removal of ICH (Group C). Confidence level less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results While the clinical features of the two groups were not significantly different except for the ICH volume, outcomes were better in all aspects in Group E. The patients in Group E required shorter operative time (72 min vs 102 min, p < 0.01) with better hematoma evacuation (95.5% vs 75%, p < 0.01), shorter stay in the intensive care unit (ICU; 4.2 days vs 6.9 days, p < 0.01) and less frequent CT scanning (6.4 times vs 8.6 times, p < 0.01) compared to the patients in Group C. Neurological outcome improved significantly in Group E 1 week after surgery (p < 0.01), but not in Group C. Glasgow outcome scale at 6 months were better in Group E than in Group C (p < 0.05). Nine patients (33%) showed good recovery at 6 months postoperatively after endoscopic evacuation of ICH. Conclusion Endoscopic hematoma evacuation provided the quick, adequate decompression of ICH. The outcomes were better than the CT-guided hematoma removal. Further study is necessary to evaluate the real benefit of this surgical procedure over the functional outcome of ICH. Presented at the Third World Conference of the International Study Group on Neuroendoscopy (ISGNE), Marburg, Germany, 15–18 June 2005.     

Surgical hematoma evacuation of cortical intracerebral hemorrhage ≥10 ml reduces risk of subsequent epilepsy by more than 70%: A retrospective monocenter study

Aim

The aim of this study was to re-evaluate risk factors for post-ICH epilepsy (PICHE) and examine the impact of surgical hematoma evacuation on epilepsy development after ICH.

Background and purpose

Epilepsy is a common complication after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Information on risk factors is still scarce and the role of ICH evacuation remains uncertain.

Methods

We retrospectively included patients with spontaneous ICH treated in our hospital in 2006–2019. Patients' medical records were analyzed. In addition, mailed questionnaires and telephone interviews were used to complete the dataset. Uni- and multivariable hazard ratios (HRs) were applied to investigate risk factors for PICHE and the impact of surgical ICH evacuation.

Results

Among 587 ICH patients available for analyses, 139 (23.7%) developed PICHE (mean follow-up 1795 ± 1378 days). The median time of epilepsy onset was 7 months after ICH (range 1–132 months). Risk factors associated with PICHE were cortical hemorrhage (multivariable HR 1.65 [95% CI 1.14–2.37]; p = 0.008), ICH volume > 10 ml (multivariable HR 1.91 [95% CI 1.33–2.73]; p < 0.001) and acute symptomatic seizures (multivariable HR 1.81 [95% CI 1.20–2.75]; p = 0.005). Patients with cortical ICH > 10 ml who underwent surgical hematoma evacuation were less likely to develop epilepsy than those with conservative treatment alone (multivariable HR 0.26 [95% CI 0.08–0.84]; p = 0.025).

Conclusions

Post-ICH epilepsy is frequent and predicted by large cortical ICH and acute symptomatic seizures. Hematoma evacuation reduced the risk of PICHE by more than 70% in patients with large cortical ICH. This finding could be considered in the clinical decision making on the acute treatment of ICH.     

Clinical and radiographic factors involved in achieving a hematoma evacuation rate of more than 70% through minimally invasive catheter drainage for spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage

Although stereotactic or neuronavigation-guided hematoma drainage for spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is widely used, its clinical efficacy and factors for predictive results remain to be fully elucidated. This study sought to determine the efficacy of hematoma evacuation for spontaneous ICH, in addition to the factors affecting it. We retrospectively reviewed patients who underwent stereotactic or neuronavigation-guided catheter insertion for spontaneous ICH at our institute between April 2010 and December 2019. We identified and compared the clinical and radiographic factors between groups according to the hematoma evacuation rate of 70%. Logistic regression analyses were performed to identify factors affecting hematoma evacuation. We investigated whether the hematoma evacuation rate was associated with patient survival. A total of 95 patients who underwent stereotactic or neuronavigation-guided catheter insertion and hematoma drainage for spontaneous ICH were included. A multivariate analysis indicated that a hematoma volume of 30–60 cm³ (odds ratio [OR] = 8.064, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.285–28.468, P = 0.001), blend sign (OR = 6.790, 95% CI = 1.239–37.210, P = 0.027), diabetes (OR = 0.188, 95% CI = 0.041–0.870, P = 0.032), and leukocytosis (OR = 3.061, 95% CI = 1.094–8.563, P = 0.033) were significantly associated with a higher hematoma evacuation. The mean hematoma evacuation rate in patients with 1-month mortality was lower than that in survivors (P = 0.051). Our study revealed that a hematoma volume of 30–60 cm³, the presence of a blend sign and leukocytosis, and the absence of diabetes are independent predictors that affect more than 70% of hematoma evacuations.     

Initial experience with minimally invasive endoscopic evacuation of intracerebral hemorrhage in the setting of radiographic herniation

BackgroundSpontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) can rapidly result in cerebral herniation, leading to poor neurologic outcomes or mortality. To date, neither decompressive hemicraniectomy (DH) nor hematoma evacuation have been conclusively shown to improve outcomes for comatose ICH patients presenting with cerebral herniation, with these patients largely excluded from clinical trials. Here we present the outcomes of a series of patients presenting with ICH and radiographic herniation who underwent emergent minimally invasive (MIS) ICH evacuation.MethodsWe reviewed our prospectively collected registry of patients undergoing MIS ICH evacuation at a single institution from 01/01/2017 to 10/01/2021. We selected all consecutive patients with Glasgow coma scale (GCS) ≤ 8 and radiographic herniation for this case series. Clinical and radiographic variables were collected, including admission GCS score, preoperative and postoperative hematoma volumes, National Institute of Health stroke scale (NIHSS) scores, and modified Rankin scale (mRS) scores at last follow-up.ResultsOf 176 patients with spontaneous supratentorial ICH who underwent minimally invasive endoscopic evacuation during the study time period, a total of 9 patients presented with GCS ≤ 8 and evidence of radiographic herniation. Among these patients, the mean age was 62 ± 12 years, the median GCS at presentation was 5 [IQR 4-6], the mean preoperative hematoma volume was 94 ± 44 mL, the mean time from ictus to evacuation was 12 ± 5 h, and the mean postoperative hematoma volume was 11 ± 16 mL, for a median evacuation percentage of 97% [83-99]. Three patients (33%) died, four (44%) survived with mRS 5 and two (22%) with mRS 4. Patients had a median NIHSS improvement of 5 compared to their initial NIHSS. Age was very strongly correlate to improvements in NIHSS (r² = 0.90).ConclusionData from this initial experience suggest emergent MIS hematoma evacuation in the setting of ICH with radiographic herniation is feasible and technically effective. Further randomized studies are required to determine if such an intervention offers overall benefits to patients and their families.     

Stereotactic Aspiration-Thrombolysis of Intracerebral Hemorrhage and its Impact on Perihematoma Brain Edema

Background  Recent reports suggest that when thrombolytic agents are administered within the clot, lysis rate accelerates at the expense of increased risk of worsening edema. To test this hypothesis, we report on the volumetric analysis of (1) the intraparenchymal hematoma and, (2) perihematomal edema in a cohort of ICH patients treated with intraclot rtPA. Methods  A convenience sample of highly selected ICH patients underwent frameless stereotactic aspiration and thrombolysis (FAST) of the clot. Two milligrams of rtPA were administered every 12 h until ICH volume ≤10 cc, or catheter fenestrations were no longer in continuity with the clot. ICH and perihematomal edema volumes were calculated from CT scans. Using random effects linear regression we estimated the rate of hematoma and edema volume resolution as well as their relationship during the first 8 days of lytic therapy. Results  Fifteen patients were treated, mean age: 60.7 years, median time from ictus to FAST: 1 (range 0–3) day. Using a random effects model that considered volume resolution over the first 8 days following lytic therapy we found that the both percentage hematoma and percentage perihematoma edema resolution per day were quadratic with respect to time. Percentage residual hematoma volume on day K = 97.7% − [24.36%*K] + [1.89%*K ²]; P < 0.001 for both terms. Percentage residual edema on day K = 97.4% − [13.94%*K] + [1.30%*K ²]; P < 0.001 for K and P = 0.01 for K ². Examination of each patient’s volume data suggests that there exists a strong direct relationship between perihematoma edema volume and same day hematoma volume. Conclusions  In this cohort of ICH patients treated using FAST, volumetric analysis of ICH and perihematomal edema seems to suggest that local use of rtPA does not exacerbate brain edema formation. Furthermore, there seems to be a strong association between reduction in ICH volume and reduction in edema volume, as would be expected following the concept of “hemotoxicity” postulated by some investigators.     

Radiopacity of intracerebral hemorrhage correlates with perihemorrhagic edema

Background: Experimental evidence indicates that iron plays a key role in edema formation after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). We investigated the relationship between ICH radiopacity on CT as a marker of hematoma iron content and perihemorrhagic edema (PHE) after ICH. Methods: We retrospectively investigated patients with spontaneous lobar and ganglionic supratentorial ICH who received follow‐up CT scans during the first 7 days after symptom onset (d1, d2–4, d5–7). Measurements of ICH and edema volumes were taken using a semiautomatic threshold‐based volumetric algorithm. Radiopacity of the blood clot was determined using the mean Hounsfield unit (HU) count of the ICH. Results: A total of 117 patients aged 71.92 ± 11.55 years with spontaneous ICH (34.63 ± 32.44 ml) were included in the analysis. Mean ICH radiopacity was 59.7 ± 3.4 HU. We found significantly larger relative PHE at d2–4 (1.7 ± 0.9 vs. 1.3 ± 0.8; P = 0.032) and d5–7 (2.0 ± 1.3 vs. 1.3 ± 0.9; P = 0.007) and larger peak relative PHE (2.3 ± 1.6 vs. 1.6 ± 1.1; P = 0.006) in patients with ICH radiopacity >60 HU (n = 59), as compared to patients with ICH radiopacity <60 HU (n = 58). Conclusions: Higher ICH radiopacity, reflecting higher in vivo hematoma iron content, is associated with more PHE after ICH.     

急性缺血性脑卒中患者脑灌注改变与可能干预靶点

目的观察急性缺血性脑卒中患者病灶区与病灶周围区灌注参数的变化,探讨可能干预治疗的作用靶点。方法选择2015-03—2016-03连续入组的发病时间在72h以内急性缺血性脑卒中住院患者,入院后24~48h内行磁共振灌注检查,灌注参数包括脑血容量(CBV)、脑血流量(CBF)、平均通过时间(MTT)和达峰时间(TTP)。应用视觉评定法判断是否存在灌注异常将患者分为灌注正常组和异常组;采用图像融合技术和同心圆定标法确定位于病灶区和病灶周围区的兴趣区(ROI)和其镜像区(ROM),自动计算ROI、ROM信号值;以ROI/ROM作为灌注参数相对值即rCBV、rCBF、rMTT、rTTP进行比较。结果共入组患者158例,灌注异常113例,灌注正常45例,异常率72%。与灌注正常组比较,无论病灶区还是病灶周围区,灌注异常组患者均表现为rCBV升高(CBV与信号值成反比)、rCBF减少、rMTT和rTTP延长,与灌注正常组差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。在灌注异常组患者病灶区和病灶周围区CBV减少存在低灌注;MTT和TTP延长存在血流淤滞;而灌注正常组患者则表现为CBV增加出现高灌注;MTT和TTP正常,无明显血流淤滞。改善灌注异常组患者病灶和病灶周围区CBV成为临床干预治疗的可能靶点。结论改善病灶区和其周围区域的CBV,为急性缺血性脑卒中患者的临床治疗提供了可能的治疗靶点和客观判断标准。     

Explorative investigation of biomarkers of brain damage and coagulation system activation in clinical stroke differentiation

Introduction   A simple and accurate method of differentiating ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is potentially useful to facilitate acute therapeutic management. Blood measurements of biomarkers of brain damage and activation of the coagulation system may potentially serve as novel diagnostic tools for stroke subtypes. Methods   Ninety-seven stroke patients were prospectively investigated in a multicenter design with blood levels of brain biomarkers S100B, neuron specific enolase (NSE), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) as well as a coagulation biomarker, activated protein C – protein C inhibitor complex (APC-PCI), within 24 hours of symptom onset. Results   Eighty-three patients (86 %) had ischemic stroke and fourteen patients (14 %) had ICH. There were no differences in S100B (p = 0.13) and NSE (p = 0.67) levels between patients with ischemic stroke or ICH. However, GFAP levels were significantly higher in ICH patients (p = 0.0057). APC-PCI levels were higher in larger ischemic strokes (p = 0.020). The combination of GFAP and APC-PCI levels, in patients with NIHSS score more than 3, had a sensitivity and negative predictive value of 100 % for ICH in our material (p = 0.0052). Conclusion   This exploratory study indicated that blood levels of biomarkers GFAP and APC-PCI, prior to neuroimaging, may rule out ICH in a mixed stroke population.     

Computer-Assisted Volumetric Analysis Compared With ABC/2 Method for Assessing Warfarin-Related Intracranial Hemorrhage Volumes

Introduction  Intraparenchymal hemorrhage (IPH) volume is a powerful predictor of 30-day mortality. Warfarin-related intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) has a higher mortality than ICH without anticoagulation, possibly due to continued growth after 24 h, larger average size, and extension to extraparenchymal compartments. We compared 2 methods of measuring ICH volume in patients with warfarin-related ICH. Methods  ICH volume was estimated using the ABC/2 method and a computer-assisted method (Analyze 6.0 software) applied to the initial head computed tomographic scans in a consecutive series of 8 patients with warfarin-related ICH. The 2 methods were compared for relative and absolute differences in estimated hematoma volumes. Results  The ABC/2 method underestimated hematoma volume in 4 of 5 patients with IPH, inaccurately calculated intraventricular hemorrhage volume in 2 patients (overestimated by 9%, underestimated by 23%), and underestimated a complex subdural hematoma in 1 patient by 24% despite use of the Gebel modification. The mean percentage difference between the Analyze and ABC/2 methods was 24% in ellipsoid hemorrhages and 28% in nonellipsoid hemorrhages (P = 0.77). The mean of the absolute difference between the 2 methods was 6.7 cm³ in ellipsoid hemorrhages and 38.0 cm³ in nonellipsoid hemorrhages (P = 0.18). Conclusion  The ABC/2 method accurately and quickly estimates smaller, ellipsoid intraparenchymal hematomas but is inaccurate for larger, complex-shaped warfarin-related intraparenchymal, intraventricular, and subdural hematomas. Warfarin-related ICH mortality may be underestimated by the ABC/2 method because of larger, complex-shaped, and multicompartmental hematomas. Presented in part as a poster at the annual meeting of the Neurocritical Care Society, Baltimore, Maryland, November 6, 2006.     

Perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in acute intracerebral hemorrhage at baseline and during the 1st and 2nd week: a longitudinal study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Ischemic penumbra has been suggested as a contributing mechanism to secondary neuronal injury in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Preliminary data suggest the presence of perihematomal hypoperfusion within the first hours after acute ICH. Our objective was to elucidate perfusion changes in the perihematomal region over time using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). METHODS: Two perfusion-weighted MRIs were studied prospectively in 18 ICH patients. All patients had an acute perfusion-weighted MRI within 24 h of the onset of symptoms (time 0); 11 patients had a follow-up study on day 7 (time 1), and 7 patients on days 10-14 (time 2). The region of interest (ROI) was placed over the penumbral area, on high-intensity FLAIR and perfusion overlapping map imaging. Clinical data were assessed at baseline (National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale) and on day 90 (Canadian Scale, modified Rankin Scale). RESULTS: The average hematoma volume was 56 (9-140) ml; 10 were located deeply, and 8 were lobar. When we compared the perfusion changes (mean transit time prolongation) in the perihematomal area (lesion ROI) relative to itself over time, we found significant differences only between times 0 and 2 (p = 0.05). There were also significant differences in mean transit time between the lesion ROI and the contralateral mirror ROI in the baseline study (p = 0.001), with a trend to significance for time 1. CONCLUSIONS: Our data confirm the presence of hypoperfusion around an acute ICH and demonstrate that this change disappears completely after the first week. These data suggest that further evaluation of this feature of acute ICH is warranted, as its confirmation may lead to modifications in the current therapeutic approach.     

MRI features of intracerebral hemorrhage within 2 hours from symptom onset.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: MRI has been increasingly used in the evaluation of acute stroke patients. However, MRI must be able to detect early hemorrhage to be the only imaging screen used before treatment such as thrombolysis. Susceptibility-weighted imaging, an echo-planar T2* sequence, can show intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) in patients imaged between 2.5 and 5 hours from symptom onset. It is unknown whether MRI can detect ICH earlier than 2.5 hours. We describe 5 patients with ICH who had MRI between 23 and 120 minutes from symptom onset and propose diagnostic patterns of evolution of hyperacute ICH on MRI. METHODS: As part of our acute imaging protocol, all patients with acute stroke within 24 hours from symptom onset were imaged with a set of sequences that included susceptibility-weighted imaging, diffusion- and perfusion-weighted imaging, T1- and T2-weighted imaging, fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR), and MR angiography using echo-planar techniques. Five patients with ICH had MRI between 23 and 120 minutes from the onset of symptoms. RESULTS: ICH was identified in all patients. Distinctive patterns of hyperacute ICH and absence of signs of ischemic stroke were the hallmark features of this diagnosis. The hyperacute hematoma appears to be composed of 3 distinct areas: (1) center: isointense to hyperintense heterogeneous signal on susceptibility-weighted and T2-weighted imaging; (2) periphery: hypointense (susceptibility effect) on susceptibility-weighted and T2-weighted imaging; and (3) rim: hypointense on T1-weighted imaging and hyperintense on T2-weighted imaging, representing vasogenic edema encasing the hematoma. CONCLUSIONS: MRI is able to detect hyperacute ICH and show a pattern of evolution of the hematoma within 2 hours from the onset of symptoms.     

Serum S100B,brain edema,and hematoma formation in a rat model of collagenase-induced hemorrhagic stroke

S100B, a 21-kD Ca²⁺ binding protein expressed in Schwann cells and astroglia, has often been reported as a promising biomarker for ischemic stroke. In addition to ischemic stroke, the peripheral S100B level may also be useful as a biomarker for intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). However, the kinetics and characterization of peripheral S100B in patients or experimental animal models with ICH have not been carefully examined. The present study investigated the kinetics and characteristics of the serum S100B level in a rat collagenase-induced ICH model. The serum S100B kinetics and the time-course of brain edema and hematoma formation were examined. Then, the correlations between the elevated serum S100B level and brain edema or hematoma formation were investigated. A transient elevation of serum S100B that peaked at 6 h after ICH induction was observed. The single measurement of serum S100B at 6 h after ICH induction was significantly correlated with brain edema formation and the maximal extent of the hematoma volumes. These results suggest the significance of serum S100B as a biomarker of brain damage resulting from ICH.     

Decompressive craniectomy with clot evacuation in large hemispheric hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage

Introduction: Decompressive hemicraniectomy in large hemispheric infarctions has been reported to lower mortality and improve the unfavorable outcomes. Hematoma volume is a powerful predictor of 30-day mortality in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Hematoma volume adds to intracranial volume and may lead to life-threatening elevation of intracranial pressure. Methods: Records of 12 consecutive patients with hypertensive ICH treated with decompressive hemicraniectomy were reviewed. The data collected included Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score at admission and before surgery, ICH volume, ICH score, and a clinical grading scale for ICH that accurately risk-stratifies patients regarding 30-day mortality. Outcome was assessed as immediate mortality and modified Rankin Score (mRS) at the last follow-up. Results: Of the 12 patients with decompressive hemicraniectomy, 11 (92%) survived to discharge; of those 11, 6 (54.5%) had good functional outcome, defined as a mRS of 0 to 3 (mean follow-up: 17.13 months; range: 2–39 months). The mean age was 49.8 years (range: 19–76 years). Three of the 7 patients with pupillary abnormalities made a good recovery; of the 11 patients with intraventricular extensions (IVEs), 7 made a good recovery. The clinical finding (which was present in all 3 patients with mRS equal to 5 and which was not present in patients with mRS less than 5) was abnormal occulocephalic reflex. Of the 10 patients with an ICH score of 3,9 (90%) survived to discharge, 4 (44%) had good functional outcome (mRS: 1–3). Hematoma volume was 60 cm³ or greater in eight patients, four (50%) of whom had good functional outcome (mRS: 0–3). Conclusion: Decompressive hemicraniectomy with hematoma evacuation is life-saving and improves unfavorable outcomes in a select group of young patients with large right hemispherical ICH.     

脑出血患者CT灌注成像的研究

目的 利用CT灌注成像技术(CTP)观察脑出血患者的脑血液动力学变化规律及对临床神经功能缺损评分(SSS)的影响.方法 对41例幕上脑出血患者于发病后5 h～14 d同步行头颅CT平扫和CTP检查,观察时间、血肿体积、水肿范围、发病期间的血糖水平、同步平均动脉压(MBP)对脑出血患者脑血液动力学的影响和这种血液动力学变化与脑出血患者SSS相关性.结果 (1)血肿周围水肿带内、水肿带外(距离水肿边缘1 cm内)、同侧皮层区间不同病理区域脑血流量(分别为CBF1、CBF2、CBF3)差异有统计学意义(P<0.05),且随时间呈波动性变化;CBF1、CBF2呈直线正相关关系(r=0.334,P=0.035),与CBF3无直线相关关系(r=0.027,P=0.870;r=0.142,P=0.383).另外水肿带内CBF1和脑血容量(CBV1)呈直线正相关关系(r=0.803,P=0.000),但与达峰时间(PT1)无相关关系(r=-0.52,P=0.752).(2)CBF1的下降程度与血肿体积、血肿周围水肿范围呈直线负相关关系(r=-0.501,P=0.001;r=-0.589,P=0.000),与发病期间的血糖水平、MBP无相关关系(r=0.141,P=0.386;r=0.014,P=0.930).(3)血肿周围灌注损伤范围(参数图灌注缺损范围-血肿范围,此范围内的CBF<20mL/100 g·min)与血肿体积、血肿周围水肿范围呈直线正相关关系(r=0.449,P=0.003;r=0.645,P=0.000),与发病期间的血糖水平、MBP无相关关系(r=-0.047,P=0.769;r=0.141,P=0.378).(4)脑出血患者同步的SSS与血肿体积、血肿部位、CBF的下降程度、CBV的下降程度呈相关关系(r=-0.418,P=0.007;r=0.542,P=0.000;r=0.376,P=0.017;r=0.312,P=0.051),与血肿最大平面的灌注缺损范围、水肿范围无相关关系(r=-0.283,P=0.073;r=-0.163,P=0.308).结论 (1)脑出血患者血肿周围水肿带内、外及同侧皮层血流减低均降低,但趋势不一致.(2)血肿周围水肿带内存在着缺血性损伤(CBF<20mL/100g·min),其范围和程度均血肿大小、水肿范围有关,随时间波动变化,但未达到统计学差异.(3)出血部位、血肿体积、血肿周围水肿带内脑灌注水平影响脑出血患者的SSS.     

The Impact of a Neuro-Intensivist on Patients with Stroke Admitted to a Neurosciences Intensive Care Unit

Introduction  Stroke Units improve the outcome in patients with mild to moderate severity strokes. We sought to examine the role that a full-time neurointensivist (NI) might play on the outcomes of patients with more severe strokes admitted to a Neurosciences Intensive Care Unit (NICU). Methods  Data regarding 433 stroke patients admitted to a 10-bed university hospital NICU were prospectively collected in two 19-month periods, before and after the appointment of a NI. Outcomes and disposition of patients with ischemic stroke (IS), intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) or subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) were compared between the two periods, using univariate and multivariate analyses. Results  One hundred and seventy-four patients with strokes were admitted in the period before and 259 in the period after the NI. Observed mortality did not differ between the two periods. More patients were discharged home in the after period (75% vs. 54% in the before period (P = 0.003). After adjusting for covariates, the NICU and hospital LOS were shorter for each type of stroke in the after period (Cox proportional hazard ratios, 95% CI were 2.37, 1.4–4.1 and 1.8, 1.04–3 for IS, 1.98, 1.3–3 and 1.2, 0.8–1.9 for ICH, and 1.6, 1.1–2.3 and 1.4, 1.01–2 for SAH, respectively) or for all strokes (1.92, 1.52–2.43 and 1.7, 1.28–2.25 for the first 12 days of hospital admission). Conclusion  The direct patient care offered and the organizational changes implemented by a NI shortened the NICU and hospital LOS and improved the disposition of patients with strokes admitted to a NICU.     

Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome Associated with Hemorrhage

Background  Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome (PRES) is a clinico-radiological entity characterized by headache, encephalopathy, visual disturbances, and seizures in association with reversible vasogenic edema on neuroimaging. Intracerebral hemorrhage associated with PRES (PRES-ICH) is generally considered an atypical finding. Methods  Retrospective case series. Results  Seven patients were identified with PRES-ICH, four males and three females. The presenting clinical symptoms included headache (2), encephalopathy (5), vision changes (2), seizures (2), and hemiparesis (1). The co-morbid conditions included acute renal dysfunction (3), solid organ transplantation (3), bone marrow transplant (1), use of calcineurin inhibitor agents (4), and pre-eclampsia (1). Neuroimaging revealed intraparenchymal hemorrhage in six patients and subarachnoid hemorrhage in one patient. Six of the seven patients with PRES-related ICH had underlying bleeding diathesis, including one patient who was anti-coagulated with a heparin drip. The mean platelet count was 82.1 × 10³/μl (range, 4–232 × 10³/μl), and the mean INR value was 2.18 (range, 0.9–6.7). Two patients died during the acute hospitalization. Among the five survivors, only two patients had good functional outcome (pre-defined as mRS ≤ 1). Conclusion  In our series, the majority of patients with PRES-ICH (85%) had an underlying bleeding diathesis or coagulopathy. Although PRES is typically considered to have a favorable prognosis, the clinical outcome of PRES with associated ICH can be more variable.     

Treatment of huge hypertensive putaminal hemorrhage by surgery and cerebrospinal fluid drainage

Objective

There is limited information available regarding the treatment of huge hypertensive putaminal hemorrhage (HPH). This study aimed to evaluate our experience of 33 patients with huge HPH who were treated by open surgery (decompressive craniectomy and hematoma evacuation) and external cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage.

Methods

We reviewed the records of 33 consecutive patients admitted to our hospital with huge HPH (≥60 cm³). All patients were treated by decompressive craniectomy, hematoma evacuation, and CSF drainage. Data collected included age, gender, blood pressure at admission, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score, intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) location, ICH volume, degree of midline shift, presence/absence of basal cistern obliteration at admission and before surgery, and presence/absence of intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH). Outcome was assessed by the Glasgow Outcome Scale score at 30 days after surgery.

Results

The median GCS score was 5.0 at admission, and improved to 8.0 at 1 week after surgery. The median ICH volume was 95 cm³ before surgery and 4 cm³ after surgery. IVH was observed in 93.9% of patients. The overall survival rate to discharge was 75.6% (25/33), including 15.1% (4/33) with good function, 36.4% (12/33) with disability, and 24.3% (8/33) in a vegetative state. The mortality rate was 24.3% (8/33). Patients with right-sided ICH had better outcomes than those with left-sided ICH. No patients with GCS score ≤6 and ICH volume ≥90 cm³ at admission achieved good postoperative function. Operative time was significantly shorter with hematoma evacuation via the transcortical approach than via the transsylvian approach (3.41 ± 0.75 h vs. 4.14 ± 0.59 h, P < 0.001). There were no significant differences in the rates of mortality or survival with good function between the two groups.

Conclusions

Treatment of huge HPH by decompressive craniectomy, hematoma evacuation, and CSF drainage is life-saving. Patients with GCS score 7–8, ICH volume 60–90 cm³, and right-sided ICH may achieve good recovery. The transcortical approach appears to be more effective than the transsylvian approach for rapid decompression of the edematous brain.