Contributions of pain-related adjustment and perceptions of control to coping strategy use among cervical sprain patients

Coping is a cyclical process in which an individual evaluates stressful events, chooses and implements coping strategies, re-evaluates the outcome of the coping effort and modifies the strategy if necessary. The intent of the present study was to evaluate the extent to which pain-related adjustment (i.e. pain severity, pain interference, negative affect) and perceptions of control are associated with the implementation of particular coping strategies. Participants were 136 patients assessed at an interdisciplinary pain clinic for cervical sprain injuries. As part of a routine assessment, participants completed a questionnaire package regarding background, pain severity, pain interference, negative affect, perceived control and use of particular coping strategies. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that pain interference, after controlling for all other variables, was associated with greater use of less physically demanding strategies (i.e. resting, guarding, asking for assistance, seeking social support and coping self-statements). Negative affect, on the other hand, after controlling for other variables, was associated with reduced use of task persistence. Finally, perceived control, independent of other variables, was associated with greater use of cognitive and social coping strategies (i.e. asking for assistance, seeking social support and coping self-statements). The results of the study shed light on the complex relationship between use of particular coping strategies and situational variables of pain-related adjustment and perceived control. Implications for clinicians who assist patients via implementation or modification of particular coping techniques are discussed.     

Empirical subgroups of the Coping Strategies Questionnaire-Revised: a multisample study.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the dimensions of coping, measured by the subscales of the new revised Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CSQ-R) using factor analysis, and to perform cluster analysis on these factors to explore the existence of distinct subgroups. No published studies have identifed subgroups of chronic pain patients based on the use of CSQ coping strategies. SOURCE: A sample of 419 chronic low back pain patients from a multidisciplinary pain rehabilitation clinic and a sample of 556 chronic pain patients of mixed pain etiology presenting for treatment at an anesthesia pain clinic were used to establish reliability of factors and clusters. RESULTS: Both samples yielded very similar two-factor solutions, with initial solutions accounting for 67.1% and 69.1% of the total variance. The factors were characterized as cognitive coping and distraction. Three homogeneous subgroups were then identified that consisted of a group high on cognitive coping, a group with low overall ratings of response CSQ-R items in general, and a group with frequent endorsement of catastrophizing and distraction-related items. CONCLUSION: This paper is the first to report empirically derived subgroups from scores on the CSQ or CSQ-R. In addition, the three clusters were significantly different across measures of pain, psychological distress, and levels of physical functioning, demonstrating validity for the clusters.     

Changes after multidisciplinary pain treatment in patient pain beliefs and coping are associated with concurrent changes in patient functioning

Little is known about how patient functioning changes after completion of multidisciplinary pain programs, and what factors are associated with such changes when they occur; for example, whether improvement or deterioration in functioning corresponds to changes in patient beliefs and coping during this period. The objective of this study was to examine the extent to which changes in patient pain and functioning were associated with changes in beliefs and coping after multidisciplinary pain treatment. Patients with chronic pain (N=141) completed outcome (pain, functioning) and process (beliefs, catastrophizing, coping) measures at the end of multidisciplinary pain treatment and 12 months posttreatment. On average, patients reported similar levels of pain at both times, but showed a small worsening in disability and depression outcomes between posttreatment and follow-up, which were associated significantly with concurrent changes in the process measures. In particular, increased belief in oneself as disabled by pain, catastrophizing, and increased use of resting, guarding and asking for assistance in response to pain were linked with increased disability and depression. Decreased perceived control over pain was also consistently associated with worsening of these outcomes. The results highlight the potential importance of specific pain-related beliefs and coping responses in long-term patient pain and adjustment. Research is needed to determine whether booster interventions after the end of intensive multidisciplinary treatment that target these beliefs and coping responses improve long-term outcomes.     

Pain beliefs and the use of cognitive-behavioral coping strategies.

Patients' beliefs about chronic pain, such as how long it will last and whether it is a mysterious experience, have been shown to be related to compliance with treatment programs. The present study examined whether these pain beliefs related to a specific component of pain management, namely the frequency of use and the perceived effectiveness of cognitive and behavioral coping strategies. One hundred twenty chronic pain patients were administered the Pain Beliefs and Perceptions inventory (PBAPI) and the Coping Strategies questionnaire (CSQ). A cluster analysis of 2 pain beliefs (that pain is enduring and that pain is mysterious) was conducted revealing 3 distinct subgroups of patients based upon these 2 beliefs. Multivariate analysis of variance was used to detect whether the use of cognitive-behavioral pain coping strategies differed in patients in the 3 pain beliefs subgroups. The results indicated that patients belonging to the group characterized by the belief that pain was enduring and mysterious were less likely to use cognitive coping strategies (e.g., reinterpretation of pain sensation), more likely to catastrophize, and less likely to rate their coping strategies as effective in controlling and decreasing pain than patients believing their pain to be understandable and of short duration. The implications of these results for understanding the patient's choice of and compliance with treatment and coping efforts is discussed.     

Depression and functional disability in chronic pediatric pain.

OBJECTIVES: The primary aim of this study was to describe pain characteristics, coping strategies, depression, and functional disability in children and adolescents with chronic pain and to examine potential factors that are associated with functional disability in a pediatric pain population. The secondary aim of this study was to compare functional disability in two chronic pain conditions: localized musculoskeletal pain and chronic daily headaches. SUBJECTS: The participants in this study were 73 pediatric pain patients with a variety of chronic pain conditions. Subjects in the second part of the study were a subset of patients (N = 44) from the pain clinic sample with chronic localized musculoskeletal pain and a subset of patients (N = 38) from the headache center of the same hospital who had chronic daily headaches. DESIGN: Patients completed self-report measures of pain intensity, depression, coping strategies, coping efficacy, and functional disability. RESULTS: Results indicated that chronic pain had a substantial impact on the children's lives and that depression was strongly associated with functional disability. Maladaptive coping was correlated with depression and disability; however, maladaptive coping was not independently associated with functional disability. A comparison between the two groups found significant differences in pain intensity and functional disability. The localized musculoskeletal pain group reported higher levels of disability and more difficulty coping than the chronic daily headache group. CONCLUSIONS: The implications for treatment of chronic pain in children are discussed with an emphasis on greater attention to developmental issues and their relation to coping, emotional functioning, and disability in pediatric pain. Further research examining differences in coping and disability between different pediatric pain groups is also warranted.     

Coping, pain severity, interference, and disability: the potential mediating and moderating roles of race and education.

Researchers have demonstrated that certain types of pain coping are correlated with less pain severity and disability and that there are differences between Caucasians and African-American pain patients in their use of specific coping strategies. However, the extent to which racial group differences exist in the associations between pain coping strategies and pain severity, interference, and disability is unclear. Furthermore, the role of education in these associations is uncertain. We recruited a diverse community sample of individuals with chronic pain and their spouses to examine this issue (N = 105). Participants completed the Coping Strategies Questionnaire, Multidimensional Pain Inventory, and Sickness Impact Profile. Results showed that African-American participants reported significantly more pain severity, interference, and disability and reported using diverting attention and prayer and hoping pain-coping strategies significantly more often than Caucasian participants; however, only the racial group difference in prayer and hoping remained when controlling for education. We also examined whether race and education interacted with coping strategies in relating to pain and disability. Significant three-way interactions were found for physical and psychosocial disability, suggesting that educational level should be included in analyses exploring racial group differences. The results suggest the need for pain treatments that take into account the educational and cultural context of pain. PERSPECTIVE: This article demonstrates that demographic variables such as race and education should be considered together when evaluating the effectiveness of coping with pain. The findings have the potential to enhance research and clinical practice with diverse groups.     

Do beliefs, coping, and catastrophizing independently predict functioning in patients with chronic pain?

Physical and psychosocial disability in patients with chronic pain have been shown to be associated with patients' pain-related beliefs, tendency to catastrophize, and pain coping strategy use. However, little is known about whether beliefs, catastrophizing, and coping strategies are independently associated with patient adjustment. Identification of specific beliefs, cognitive responses, and coping strategies strongly and independently associated with physical and psychosocial functioning would suggest the importance of targeting those variables for modification in treatment. One hundred sixty-nine patients entering a multidisciplinary pain treatment program completed measures of pain, beliefs, coping, catastrophizing, physical disability, and depression. Principal components analyses were used to create belief and coping components, which were then entered in multiple regression analyses predicting physical disability and depression. Belief scores significantly and independently predicted both physical disability and depression, after controlling for age, sex, pain intensity, catastrophizing, and coping. Coping scores significantly and independently predicted physical disability, but not depression, whereas catastrophizing independently predicted depression, but not physical disability. These findings suggest the importance of targeting specific pain-related beliefs and coping strategies, as well as catastrophizing, for modification in the treatment of patients with chronic pain.     

Coping Skills for Oncology Patients: A Practical Guide

ObjectiveTo present a practical how-to guide on implementing a coping skills intervention for patients with cancer facing surgery.Data SourcesA review of the literature on coping and coping skills and on assessing the impact on patients’ emotional status.ConclusionDeveloping and presenting a brief coping skills program is possible within the confines of perioperative preparation for oncology patients. Such coping skills help develop a sense of self-efficacy, personal control, and resilience. Patients are responsive to the program and seem to practice their home assignments in a satisfactory manner.Implications for Nursing PracticeOncology nurses can implement some of or all of the program with their patients. The coping skills fall under the mandate of a variety of health care professionals and are readily available to present to patients. The preoperative period is a suitable time to engage patients to learn coping skills.     

Chronic pain and coping: a proposed role for nurses and nursing models

AIMS: Activity of living based nurse models such as that proposed by Roper, Logan and Tierney are utilized commonly to rationalize, structure and guide practice. This paper proposes that their use, in the context of chronic pain, should be extended to incorporate the assessment of coping and its effect on disability. BACKGROUND: As coping has been found to account for some of the variance in adaptation to chronic pain, generic models of coping and their utility in this context are considered. The need for reliable and valid means to assess coping are of paramount importance as this will facilitate and inform treatment and management of chronic pain. At the present time coping is most generally assessed using self report instruments which primarily focus on the number and type of strategies used to cope rather than their effectiveness in reducing disability and increasing function. FINDINGS: A classification system which categorizes chronic pain patients in terms of how they function in daily life as either adaptive copers, interpersonally distressed or dysfunctional is outlined. The similarities between this and a routine nursing assessment based on an activities of living model are highlighted. CONCLUSIONS: It is proposed that the innovative use of nursing activity of living models could provide the framework for a pain clinic based assessment of coping that has greater utility for professionals and patients alike.     

Early Maladaptive Schemas and Adaptive/Maladaptive Styles of Humor

Early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) are thought to act as templates for information processing which influence individuals’ emotional reactions to life situations and their styles of interpersonal relating. The association between EMSs and psychopathology is also believed to be mediated by the use of maladaptive compensatory coping and deficits in adaptive coping (e.g., avoidance, surrender). As styles of coping, humor may be such a mediator. This study examined correlations between domains of the Young Schema Questionnaire-Short form and subscales of the Humor Styles Questionnaire. A number of EMS domains were associated with reduced use of adaptive affiliative and self-enhancing humor styles and increased use of maladaptive self-defeating humor. In addition, the maladaptive aggressive style of humor was associated with the EMS involving insufficient self-control. The relationship between most EMS domains and depressed mood was mediated by both self-enhancing and self-defeating humor styles.     

Psychosocial risks for disability in children with chronic back pain.

Psychosocial factors related to disability in adults with chronic back pain have been well studied, but little is known about factors associated with functional impairment in pediatric patients with chronic back pain. The purpose of this study was to examine whether 2 potential risk factors-use of catastrophizing as a coping technique and presence of a familial pain history-were associated with disability in pediatric back pain patients. Participants were 65 patients (ages 8-18) with chronic back pain seen at a multidisciplinary pain clinic. Patients completed measures of pain (visual analog scales), disability (Functional Disability Inventory), and catastrophizing (Internalizing/Catastrophizing subscale of the Pain Coping Questionnaire). Parents provided demographic information and familial pain history. Patients reported that chronic back pain caused disruptions in their daily functioning and they missed, on average, 2.5 days of school every month. Catastrophizing and familial chronic pain history both were significantly associated with greater disability, with use of catastrophizing being the stronger predictor of disability. This study presents important findings on potential psychosocial risk factors of functional disability in children and adolescents with chronic back pain. Future research might clarify mechanisms by which such coping styles are developed and explore how familial communication about pain might influence a child's coping ability. PERSPECTIVE: Pediatric patients seeking treatment for chronic back pain often present with substantial functional impairment that is not well explained by disease variables or pain intensity. Two important psychosocial variables (catastrophizing and familial pain history) may provide a context for a better understanding of pain-related disability in children.     

Stress and coping styles in Japanese nursing students

The objective of this investigation was to examine the stress and coping styles in Japanese nursing students. The principal measures of the stress and coping styles were the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ)‐12 and Brief Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced scale. In a cross‐sectional analysis, 1324 students completed the anonymous self‐administered questionnaires including the scales earlier. Feeling stress, living with family, not eating breakfast every day, having no regular exercise and poor sleep were associated with GHQ responder (psychological distressed group). The most commonly reported source of stress was taking examinations, followed by relationships with friends, engaging in clinical practice and presenting reports. The three most common coping styles adopted by the nursing students were acceptance, self‐distraction and using instrumental support. By logistic regression analysis of coping styles with GHQ responder, self‐blame, active coping, acceptance and behavioural disengagement were highly associated with GHQ responder. The nursing school educators as well as students should be aware of stress management strategies (e.g. using active coping and avoiding self‐blame) that may help prevent depression.     

NEWS SECTION

Different types of integrated management programmes have lately been introduced in the treatment of Whiplash Associated Disorders (WAD). In this study regular primary care physiotherapy and physiotherapy management with integrated components of cognitive-behavioural origin was compared in an experimental group study. The predictive value of self-efficacy was also addressed. Thirty-three patients with chronic WAD were included in the trial. Results revealed no significant differences between groups in self-ratings of disability or pain intensity. However, among the self-reported benefits of treatment, patients in the experimental group reported significantly less pain than did the comparison group. At three months follow-up the experimental group also reported better performance of daily activities. Between group differences in the coping repertoire were found at pre-, post-, and three-month follow-up. Generally, patients with high self-efficacy reported less use of "maladaptive" and passive coping style than patients with low self-efficacy, at all times. In conclusion cognitive behavioural components can be useful in physiotherapy treatment for patients with chronic WAD, but their contributions are not yet fully understood. Self-efficacy is related to patients' use of different coping styles. Positive long-term outcomes in WAD-patients could therefore be improved by enhancing patients' self-efficacy and by teaching them to use active, adaptive coping strategies.     

Suicidal intent in patients with chronic pain

Suicidal ideation among individuals suffering from chronically painful conditions has not been widely studied, although rates of completed suicide are believed to be elevated in this population relative to the general population. The psychiatric literature on suicide documents the importance of controlling for the severity of depression when studying factors associated with suicidal ideation, attempts, or completion. The present study examined the relationships between suicidal ideation and the experience of pain, pain-related disability, and pain coping efforts among a sample of individuals experiencing chronically painful conditions. Of 200 patients evaluated on an inpatient rehabilitation unit in a psychiatric service, 13 individuals (6.5%) reported suicidal intent on a commonly used self-report measure of symptoms of depression, the Beck Depression Inventory. This group was compared to a matched (age, sex, pain duration) group of similarly depressed individuals (N=13) and a matched group of non-depressed individuals (N=13) on measures of pain, disability, pain beliefs, and pain coping strategies. A history of a suicide attempt was associated with suicidal intent. Family history of substance abuse was significantly more prevalent among the depressed groups, regardless of suicidal thinking. The depressed/suicidal group and depressed/non-suicidal groups reported higher levels of pain, higher levels of pain-related disability, lower use of active coping, and higher use of passive coping compared to the non-depressed group. The depressed groups did not differ from one another on any of the measures of pain experience. Depression, not suicidal status, consistently predicted level of functioning. The prevalence of suicidal intent was comparable to rates observed in other studies and relatively low. When individuals with chronic pain report suicidal intent, it is imperative that measures preventing self-harm be implemented immediately and the patient's depression be treated aggressively.     

Women's psychosocial adjustment to diabetes

Successful adjustment to a chronic illness such as diabetes mellitus is influenced by a variety of psychosocial factors. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which social support, personal resources, coping styles, and psychosocial adjustment to illness differ among women with diabetes living in different types of household structure and to explore the influence of social support, personal resources, coping styles, and household structure on the psychosocial adjustment of women with diabetes. Data were collected in 1995. The convenience sample included 115 diabetic women with an average age of 48 years. Mean length of time from diagnosis was 10 years. Instruments included a demographic data form, a measure of social support, a personal resource scale, the Jalowiec Coping Scale, the Psychosocial Adjustment to Illness Scale-Self-Report, and a self-report item for assessing household structure. Multiple analysis of variance showed that women in various types of households differed in personal resources and coping. Higher levels of social support and more adequate personal resources were associated with more effective coping and better psychosocial adjustment. The effective use of confrontive, optimistic, supportant and self-reliant coping was associated with better psychosocial adjustment, while evasive and emotive coping styles were associated with more adjustment problems. Multiple regression showed that 47% of the variance in adjustment was explained by personal resources and social support. Findings indicated that women in various types of households differed in the adequacy of their resources and in the ways that they cope with diabetes. Findings further indicated that greater social support, more adequate personal resources, and more effective coping are associated with better adjustment.     

Dysfunctional Attitudes, Coping, and Depression Among HIV-Seropositive Men Who Have Sex with Men

Several studies have documented elevated levels of psychological distress among HIV-seropositive (HIV+) symptomatic men who have sex with men (MSM). However, very little is known about the role of dysfunctional attitudes and coping strategies in maintaining and ameliorating distress levels in ways that can inform those developing psychosocial interventions for HIV+ persons. This study evaluated relations between dysfunctional attitudes and depression and examined the role of coping as a mediator of this relationship among 115 HIV+ symptomatic MSM. Higher Dysfunctional Attitude Scale scores were associated with more reported depressive symptoms. The use of adaptive coping strategies such as active coping was associated with lower depression, whereas use of maladaptive strategies such as denial was related to higher levels of depression. Both adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies mediated the relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and depression. Findings suggest that interventions aiming at reducing psychological distress in this population using cognitive restructuring and related techniques may achieve their effects by enhancing adaptive coping strategies on the one hand and reducing maladaptive strategies on the other.     

The relationship of arthritis self-efficacy to daily pain, daily mood, and daily pain coping in rheumatoid arthritis patients

There is an increasing awareness in the medical community that psychosocial variables such as beliefs in self-efficacy are important determinants of treatment outcome. However, before measures of self-efficacy are widely incorporated into clinical practice, there needs to be a better understanding of how they relate to daily pain, mood and coping. In the present study 128 rheumatoid arthritis patients completed diaries for 30 days in which they provided daily ratings of joint pain, negative and positive mood, the use of pain coping strategies, and coping efficacy. The patients then participated in an evaluation session during which measures of self-efficacy (the Arthritis Self Efficacy Scale (ASES)), demographic variables, and medical status were collected. A series of hierarchical regression analyses was conducted to determine the degree to which self-efficacy measures collected at the time of the evaluation session were related to daily diary measures collected during the 30 preceding days. The results revealed that self-efficacy was significantly related to daily ratings of pain, mood, coping and coping efficacy. Interestingly, the findings regarding self-efficacy were obtained even after taking into account the effects of important demographic and medical status variables. Taken together, these results suggest that self-efficacy ratings collected from arthritis patients at the time of an evaluation session may well be related to recent experiences of daily pain and mood, as well as the daily use and perceived effectiveness of pain coping strategies.     

老年抑郁症恢复期患者的应对方式及社会支持的评价

背景:老年抑郁症表现以不典型抑郁多见,且患者很少就诊或在综合医院就诊,给老年抑郁症的早期识别带来很大困难。目的:探讨老年抑郁症恢复期患者的应对方式及社会支持的特点。设计:病例对照对比观察。单位:华北煤炭医学院心理系。对象:收集2004-11/2005-10于北京安定医院老年门诊就诊的抑郁症恢复期患者为抑郁症组。纳入标准:①发病年龄≥60岁;②符合DSM-Ⅳ抑郁发作的诊断标准;③处于疾病恢复期,老年抑郁量表(GDS)≤10;④受试者知情同意。排除标准:①其他因素导致的抑郁障碍如物质滥用导致的抑郁障碍、精神分裂症后抑郁等;②严重或不稳定的躯体疾病患者,如严重心脑血管病、肝肾疾病、癫痫、内分泌疾病等。发放问卷104份,96份问卷有效,入组患者中男37例,女59例;年龄60～87岁,平均(68±6)岁。病程为0.3～11年,平均1.2年。选择同期北京市某普通社区老年人作为对照组。纳入标准:①年龄≥60岁;②无精神障碍;③获得受试者知情同意。排除标准:同抑郁症组。正常老年人于社区居委会在培训员的协助下当日完成自评量表,发放问卷110份,100份问卷有效。入组受试者中男44名,女56名;年龄60～84岁,平均(67±5)岁。两组受试对象在性别、年龄、受教育程度、居住情况及婚姻情况方面的差异无统计学意义。方法:对96名抑郁症组老年抑郁症恢复期患者及100名对照组普通社区老年人使用自制一般情况调查表、老年抑郁量表、社会支持量表和简易应对方式问卷进行评定。主要观察指标:自制一般情况调查表、老年抑郁量表、社会支持量表和简易应对方式问卷的评分。结果:196名受试者均进入结果分析,没有无效问卷。抑郁组患者积极应对方式低于对照组(P<0.05),消极应对方式明显高于对照组(P<0.05)。抑郁组患者社会支持总分、主观支持和对支持的利用度低于对照组(P<0.05),两组受试对象客观支持分差异无显著性。抑郁组患者积极应对与社会支持总分、主观支持和对支持的利用度呈正相关(P<0.01),消极应对与社会支持总分、主观支持和对支持的利用度呈负相关(P<0.01)。结论:社会支持中的主观支持和对支持的利用度以及消极的应对方式与老年抑郁症发病有关。